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A, L.
J. M. /^LOftiCH

THE HARLEQUIN FLY

INHALL AND HAMMOND

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK

t>^ Hb!0<

ABfiamiXLond del . et lith

The Harleq^uin Fly fCh.vrcm..omjMs dorscdzsj

THE

STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY

OF

THE HARLEQUIN FLY

(CHIRONOMUS)

BY

L. C. MIALL. F.R.S.

A. R. HAMMOND, F.L.S.

O;tforli

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1900

O;t:for;>

PRIXTKD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

UV HORACE HART, M.A.
I'KIVTER TO THE I'N'n'Kli.SlTY

PREFACE

We have undertaken to give an account of this
insect because we believe that its abundance nearly
all round the year, its transparency, and the ease
with Avhich it can be reared, render it peculiarly fit
for study by inland naturalists. Chironomus in its
various stages has a very special biological interest,
and we have thought that its inclusion in ordinary
teaching-courses would be facilitated by such a
description as is now^ offered. This insect has long-
been a favourite object with histologists, embryo-
logists, and others, but its many points of interest
had not been exhausted by our predecessors ; \^'e
are well aware that they have not been exhausted
by ourselves.

It would be a real service to biology if we could
incite the members of naturalists' clubs and other
non-academic biologists to take up the study of
life-histories. The lists of species, which are now-
printed so freely, have no particular scientific value.
Meanwhile the life-histories of insects, which have
in the past yielded facts of the greatest biological
importance, are almost totally neglected. The great

vi Preface

majority of Dipterous insects, for instance, have
never been reared, and only an insignificant minority
have been closely examined.

In determining flies for the purposes of this book,
we have been aided by the experience and accurate
knowledge of the late Mr. R. H. Meade, of Bradford.
Mr. G. H. Verrall has been good enough to identify
for us the fly of Orthocladius. We have acknow-
ledged in the proper places our obligations to
Miss Dorothy Phillips and Mr. T. H. Taylor, both
of the Yorkshire College. We hope that these two
naturalists of the new generation may succeed as
well in the independent labours that await them as
in what they have done for us. Lastly, we have to
thank the Delegates of the Clarendon Press for the
liberality with which they have produced a book,
whose numerous illustrations render it costly, while
it appeals only to a limited public.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

PAfiE

Outline of Life-History ; Relations of Chironomus

TO OTHER DiPTEKA I

CHAPTER II.
The Larva of Chironomus 25

CHAPTER in.
The Fly of Chironomus 88

CHAPTER IV.
Development of the Pupa and Fly within the Larva 118

CHAPTER V.
The Pupa of Chironomus 138

CHAPTER VI.
The Embryonic Development of Chironomus . . .153

APPENDIX. Methods of Anatomical and Histological

Investigation 177

Additional Note on the Swarming and Buzzing of

Harlequin-flies 183

BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

INDEX 193

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE

(frontispiece)

Fig. I. Male fly {Chirononms dorsalis). x 8.

Fig. 2. Female fly. x S.

Fig. 3. Dorsal view of half-grown larva, x 8.

Fig. 4. Side view of older larva.

Fig. 5. Ventral view of pupa, x 8.

Fig. 6. Side view of pupa, x 8.

The full-grown larva of C. dorsalis is about 20 mm. long ; the fly
varies from 575 to 7-5 mm.; and the pupa is a little longer than

the fly.

THE HARLEQUIN FLY

CHAPTER I

OUTLINE OF LIFE-HISTORY ; RELATIONS OF
CHIRONOMUS TO OTHER DIPTERA

Note. — When an author's name is followed by a date, tlie work cited
will he found in the bibliographical list at the end.

The naturalist wlio searches the mud at the bottom of Habitat,

food, move-

a slow stream will oiten m.eet with crimson larvae, an ments.
inch or less in length, which when full-fed turn to pupae,
and shortly afterwards emerge as two-winged flies. These
larvae are popularly called hlood-2V07'ms. They feed
chiefly on dead leaves and other vegetable refuse. Micro-
scopic examination of the contents of the stomach reveals
a blackish mass of vegetable fragments, besides diatoms,
infusoria, eggs of other aquatic animals, and grains of
sand. The larvae usually hide themselves from view, and
in deep mud form nearly vertical tubes which open at the
surface. When captured, their chief anxiety is to bury
themselves in mud or vegetation. If a larva is placed in
a saucer with a few bits of dead leaves, it will gather
them about its body, weaving them together with viscid
threads passed out from its mouth, and in a quarter of
an hour it will be completely concealed by a rude sheath,
which is not easily distinguished from the similar objects
which lie around. If the remains of plants are not to be
had, it will weave together grains of sand or particles of

Outline of Life-history

mud. In summer the proportion of

ac^ a-A

^f^

Rig. I.- — Larva of Chirononms dorsalis i, half-
grown. X 9. 2, full-grown, x 9. The numerals
mdicate the segments. JJ ap, prothoracic appen-
dages. 7't, ventral blood-gills, a.ap, anal feet.
a.p, anal blood-gills. In 2 the following are
seen through the larval skin, r./, tracheal gill
of pupa. I, leg. to, wing.

saliva is greater, and
the tubes are lined
with felted fibres.
These summer-tubes
may be so coherent
that they can be
picked up with for-
ceps and sufier no
injury. The tubes
are, if possible, at-
tached to some fixed
object, and are often
much longer than the
body of the larva.
Larvae kept in a
clean saucer with
nothing but water
make transparent
tubes of saliva only.
In winter the larvae
often inhabit galle-
ries, whose walls have
little or no cohesion.
The larva holds on to
its tube, and travels
along it, when neces-
sary, by the help of
two pairs of limbs,
which are crowned
with circles of hook-
lets. One pair is just
behind the head, the
other at the tail (fig.
i). The limbs are
aided in locomotion

Habitat, Food, Movements 3

by the labrum (fig. 16), a flap hanging down in front
of the month, which is armed with an elaborate pro-
vision of hooks and spines, and is often used to drag
the body forwards. This use of the mouth for loco-
motion can be observed in other Dipterous larvae.
Sometimes the larva sticks out the fore end of its body
in search of food ; at other times the hinder end is pushed
out, and swayed up and down in the water ; by a similar
movement of the body a current of water can be made to
flow through the burrow ^. The larva, if undisturbed,
seldom or never leaves its retreat by day, but at night it
ventures out and swims near the surface of the w^ater,
writhing in figures of-eight. The body is violently
doubled up, and then suddenly bent to the opposite side,
and the blows thus given to the water propel the larva
slowly along. Daring these nightly excursions a store of
oxygen is obtained, which amply suffices for the following
day, when the helpless larva dares not quit its shelter.
Captive larvae are careless about returning to their old
burrows, being able to make new ones so easily, but in
a small vessel they will come back time after time to the
same burrows. If the water is well aerated and food
plentiful, they often remain in their tubes day and
night. Sometimes a number of larvae weave a felted
mass of earth and threads, in which each animal has
its own tube.

The larvae commonly inhabit slow streams, but they
are also met with in pools and troughs. They can exist
at great depths, and have been fished up. sometimes in
company with Tanypus, from the bottom of Lake Geneva,
Lake Superior, and other deep lakes. They have often
been found in salt water. Packard was the first to

' Caddis-worms and the aquatic cateiiiillar of Paraponyx, as well as
the Chironomus-larva, keep up an undulatory movement of the body,
wliich continually renews the water within the sheath, case, or burrow.

B 2

Outline of Life-history

Parasites.

observe tliis ; he found tliem abundant at low- water
mark in Salem harbour ; Verrill dredged one from
a depth of twenty fathoms at Eastport, Maine ; and they
have also b9en found on the coasts of Denmark ^
Swainson has found them in the sea at the Mumbles,
Swansea, and has dredged them in fifteen fathoms off the
Isle of Man. At Sheerness they inhabit salt-marshes,
which are overflowed by the tide every day.

As might be expected from its place of abode and the
nature of its food, the blood-worm is much infested by
parasites. Stalked infusoria attach themselves to its
head as well as to other parts of the body ; nematoid
worms coil themselves up in the body-cavity, and even
distend the whole integument ; Gregarines lurk in the
intestine. According to Villot ^ a species of hair-worm

Fig. 2. — Gordian worm, infesting larva of Cliironomiis. i, immature female,
from larva, y^, in. long. 2, adult male, from mud of stream, about i in. long. The
adult female has no spicule, and the genital orifice is >3 of the leng-th of the body
from the head end.

(Gorclius), while still of microscopic size, bores into the
Chironomus-larva, and becomes encysted within it. If
the larva is swallowed by a fish, the Gordius is set free;
it now fastens upon the mucous lining of the intestine
of its new host, and again encysts itself. AVhen it has
grown to its full size, it escapes into the water, elongates

1 Meinert, 1886, ji. 73 ; Packard, 1870 ; Monnier, 1874.

2 Yillot, 1874.

Parasites 5

its body to a surprising degree, loses the cephalic
armature, and becomes capable of propagation ^.

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A nematoid worm (figs. 2, 3) which we have found in
Chironomus is hard to identify, but it appears to be

' We have seen Chironomus-larvae, 2>ointecl out to us by Mr. T. H.
Taylor, in which tlie worm escaped through one of the anal feet.

6 Outline of Life-history

either a Gordius or a Mermis. In its first condition it
infests the larva, but a later stage has been found in the
pupa and in the newly emerged fly, coiled in the body-
cavity about the abdominal viscera. At length the worm
quits its host, and then lives free in the mud, attaining a
length of about an inch. The sexes are distinct, the male
being distinguished by a spicule near the end of the tail.
The intestine runs almost the wliole length of the body,
and is at first filled with grannlar matter. It ends
blindly at both ends. An oesophagus extends backwards
for some distance from the head-end, but does not enter
the intestine '. The eggs are formed within a convoluted
tube, but ultimately escape into the body-cavity, wdiich
they distend to such a degree that the female worm
becomes little more than an egg-sac. What appears to
be the outlet of the female reproductive organs is distant
about one-third of the length of the body from the head.
In the mature male the testis extends along nearly the
whole 1 ■ngth. The spicule is imperforate, and no outlet
to the rej)roductive organs has been discovered. A double
row of minute papillae runs along the inside of the curved
tail, near the spicule. These seem to be glandular,
for slight pressure (e, g. the weight of a cover-glass)
causes them to exude a viscid fluid, which takes the form
of threads mingled with loose cells. These occupy all
the centre of the close coil formed by the tail, while the
spicule is protruded (fig. 3, 2). Neither the double spicule
of the male Mermis nor the cleft tail of the male Gordius
was seen.

The following species are said to infest Chironomus : —
Gordius tolosanus, Duj., Mermis albicans, 8ieb., 31. acu-
minata, Sieb., 31. chironomi, Sieb., 31. crassa, Linst.
They are parasitic on the larva and pupa, and 3Iermis
albicans at least is not uncommon in the fly. The
identification of the species in the second larval stage
is difficult, and we have often been in doubt as to the
forms observed.

Those who make many sections of Chironomus -larvae
and pupae will be sure to come across specimens which
harbour Gordian worms, and it may save them much
time if they bear this in mind. It has happened to us to
waste many hours over a singular new structure which
at last revealed itself as a Gordius.

' A similar break of continuity has been described in Mermis.

Enemies 7

Blood-worms are preyed upon by many aquatic insects, Enemies,
as well as by fishes. Caddis- worms, Perla-larvae, Sialis-
larvae, and Tanypus-larvae devour tlieni greedily. A
number of empty heads of the blood-worm may often be
seen in the stomach of a single Perla or Tanypus larva.

If it is desired to get a supply of blood-worms, a slow, Method of

, . . , . collecting.

muddy stream, abounding m decaying organic matter,
should be visited. Pure water is not at all necessary to
the health of the larvae, and they often abound in foul
streams. A long-handled iron spoon or ladle, which can
be tied to a walking-stick if necessary, is a convenient
collecting implement. The larvae may be picked or
Avashed out of the mud, and brought home in a wide-
mouthed collecting bottle. They can be kept alive for
weeks with very little attention. Decaying vegetation
and fresh water now and then are all that they require.
A shallow vessel is better than a deep one for these and
most other aquatic insects.

In winter captive larvae continue a long time without Transfer.

. -, , mations.

marked change. Young ones grow bigger, and now and
then moult, though it is rare that we see anything of the
operation. A cast skin enables us to make out that the
dorsal wall of the thorax splits along the middle line,
while the head breaks up along two sutures which define
the central plate (clypeus), and also along the mid- ventral
line. When the larvae are nearly an inch long, they will
often remain for many weeks together without visible
alteration. But in summer, in a particularly warm
winter- season, or in a well-warmed room, matters advance
more rapidly. If we see larvae with the rings behind
the head swollen, we know that they will shortly turn to
pupae. When the last larval skin is cast, there emerges
a very difi'erent-looking animal, in which we can make
out with a little pains a pair of wings, six long legs, and
a head with big, compound eyes. These organs belong

8 Outline of Life-history

to the fly ; for the moment they are shrouded in a deli-
cate, transparent envelope, the pupa-skin. The pupa
commonly lies within its burrow, or half in and half out,
until the time of extrication of the fly is at hand ; it
neither feeds nor swims about. Sometimes it lies with
its tail buried in mud, the head and tracheal gills sticking
out, or it may excavate a little basin in the mud by the
movements of the tail, and lie in it. The tail or abdomen
is always the part which bends to and fro. When kept in
a saucer of muddy water, the pupa lies on the surface of
the mud, and being insufficiently supported by the mud.
takes an unnatural position, lying on its side.

The red colour of the fresh-emerged pupa soon darkens,
and two bunches of silvery filaments just behind the head
show out with great distinctness. In two or three days
the pupa becomes buoyant, and rises to the surface, where
it remains until the fly escapes. The process of extrica-
tion from the pupa-skin is accomplished so quickly that
it is hard to see in detail what happens. The cast skin
floating on the water tells us that the back of the thorax
splits lengthwise, as at an ordinary larval moult, and
that the fly emerges through the cleft. Considering that
the long and slender legs, the antennae, the new mouth-
parts, the wings, and the abdomen have all to be drawn
out from their sheaths, it is startling to find the fly
taking wing before one is able to focus the eye upon it.
In the case of a fly which escaped more slowly than
usual, we estimated that the whole process occupied ten
seconds. Now and then something catches, and the fly
extricates itself with great effort, or not at all.

Most of the larvae which we find in winter are destined
to pupate and turn to flies in early spring. These lay
eggs, and produce a fresh crop of young larvae. There is
a rapid succession of broods until late autumn. A live
fly is occasionally seen on the window-pane even in the

The Fly 9

depth of winter. Some of these unseasonable examples
have lately emerged from the pupa- skin ; others have
lingered on from the previous warm season. An insect
which has been unable to mate sometimes survives its
companions for a long time.

The fly of the blood-worm is a gnat-like creature, The %.
which is often seen in summer on the window-pane, or
hovering in swarms over streams and pools. When at
rest, it usually stretches out its fore-legs, raising them
altogether from the ground ^ Unlike the gnat, it has
no biting or piercing organs, and is quite harmless. The
mouth is almost closed, and feeding seems to be im-
possible. The head is furnished with great compound
eyes, and in the male, with large plumed antennae. The
female has simpler antennae, and the eyes are not so
large as in the male. Swarms of flies, composed almost
entirely of males, dance in the air of an evening. Now
and then a pair falls towards the ground ; the male soon
rejoins the swarm, but the female flies off'. (See addi-
tional note, p. 183.)

The fertile female skims over the surface of the water, Egg-iaying
touching it lightly from time to time with her legs.
This is preliminary to the laying of the eggs, which com-
monly takes place in the late evening or early morning.
She settles at last on the margin of a pool or stream, and
brings the tip of the abdomen close to the surface of the
water. A dark gelatinous mass, consisting of eggs thinly
covered with mucilage, is then protruded until it touches
the water, when it at once begins to swell up. After all
the eggs are passed out, the whole mass, which forms
a gelatinous cylinder, is secured by the female to some
fixed object close to the water's edge. The attachment
varies according to the species of the fly, but often takes

' Gnats may be seen to lift the liind legs, and wave them slowly about,
as if to explore.

lO

Outline of Life-liistory

Peculiari-
ties of
t'resli-
hatched
larva.

Some com-
mon species
of Chiro-
nomus.

the form of a double cord, which traverses the egg-mass
and projects beyond it at one end (fig. ii6). During the
process of oviposition the female is not easily induced to
break off'; if she is forcibly removed from the surface of
the water, she sometimes flies a short distance with the
egg-mass protruding, which disproves the statement
formerly accepted, that she begins by making fast the
end of the cord ^ The eggs are almost transparent, and
can be studied microscopically while still alive. They
hatch out in three to six days.

When fresh-hatched, the Chironomus-larva is some-
what less peculiar than after its first moult ; it has at first
no red colour, and no blood-gills on the last segment but
one ; the brain is not retracted into the prothorax, but
enclosed in the head, and the nerve-cord is visibly''
double throughout its whole length. This is an ex-
ample of what zoologists call Recapitulation, the earlier
stage retaining more of what we take to be the primitive
structure.

There are many species of Chironomus, and it is
remarkable that while the flies are very similar, the
larvae are sometimes notably different. Two forms
occur frequently. In one group of species the larva often
has four long tubules (blood-gills) on the under- side of
the body at the tail-end (fig. i) ; the pupa bears bunches
of long filaments (tracheal gills) behind the head, and
has a fringed tail-plate (Plate, figs. 5, 6). To this group
belong the comparatively large red larvae, which are
called blood-wormfi. In a second group the larval tubules
are absent ; the pupa has a pair of short and simple
trumpets in place of the bunches of filaments (fig. 7) ; the
tail-plate is not fringed, but merely furnished with two
bunches of short bristles ^.

Most of the larvae of the first group burrow; the larvae

' Eitter. 1890, p. 411. - Meinert, 1886, p. 75.

C. miniitus ii

of the second group often live at the surface of the
water, and feed upon weeds. Some of these surface-
larvae are green instead of red, the green colour being
due to a pigment in the fat. In at least one species the
green pigment coexists with red blood. One greenish
larva of the second group mines the floating leaves of
Potamogeton (pond-weed\ and another smaller kind,
Avith pale red blood, does the same \

Mr. T. H. Taylor, Assistant-Lecturer in Zoology at v.
the Yorkshire College, favours us with a short account
of the larva of Chironomm mimdus, Zett., whicli has
not. so far as we know, been previously described. The
fly, which was reared in captivity, was identified b^-
Mr. E. H. Meade.

' The larva of C. minutiis is found on stones in streams
both quick and slow. It escapes observation by sur-
rounding itself with an irregular gelatinous tube, which
is fixed to a stone, and coated with foreign particles.
When disturbed, the creature leaves its case and crawls
over the stones like a leech or a Geometer-larva, bringing
the anal feet up to the prothorax, extending the bod}-
again, and so on. It swims vigorously with a figure-of-
eight movement.

' The larva is of pale green colour, and about seven mm.
long. It is similar in general appearance to the blood-
worm, except that the blood-gills on the last segment
but one are absent. The hooks on the prothoracic feet
are toothed like a comb ; the hooks on the anal feet are
simpler (fig. 4). The tracheal system is well developed,
longitudinal trunks with numerous branches extending
throughout the bod3^

1 These two groups are not exhaustive. Thus the larva of Chironomus
niveipennis has red blood, but no ventral blood-gills. The pupa has
a fringed tail-plate, and the branches of the tracheal gill are compara-
tively few. See p. 13 for further details.

miniitiia.

12

O III line of Life-history

' Larvae about to pupate have the thorax much swollen.
The pupal stage is passed in a gelatinous case, wliich

Fig. 4. — Larva of CJiironomus minutus. 14, hooks on prothoracic appendages.
5, 6, hooks on anal appendages.

adheres to a stone in the stream (fig. 5). The wall of
the case is structureless, but seems to have a fibrous
texture within. At each end of the case is a spout-like

Fig. 5. — Pupa of Chironomus minutus, lying in its transparent sheath. T]ie
arrows show the current of water. >, 15.

aperture, and by the undulations of the body a constant
current is kept up, flowing in at the fore aperture, and
out behind. The head of the pupa lies in a part of the

C. niveipennis

13

chamber which is considerably wider than the rest. It
not uncommonly happens that two pupae are enveloped
in a common case. Each however has its own separate
chamber, which lies alongside the other, but with the
ends reversed — an arrangement which saves space. The
pupa has no tracheal gills, but small respiratory trumpets
(figs. 6, 7). The minute size of the trumpets, and the com-
plete submer-
gence of the
pupa, indicate
that respira-
tion is carried
on indepen-
dently of
these oro-ans.

Fig. 6. — Dorsal stirface of pupal tlioi-ax of Chironomus
minutus, showing the respiratorj' trumpets, fg. x 50.

Fig. 7. — Respira-
tory trumpet of
Chironomus mhut-
tiis. X 400.

When ready to emerge, the pupa works its way through
the wall of its case, aided doubtless by the strong hooks
on the abdominal segments. It soon floats at the surface
of the water, the thorax splits, and the fly escapes.'

The larva and pupa of C. niveipennis have been pointed c. nUei-

- - pcnnh.

out to us by Mr. T. H. Taylor. The fly was named by
Mr. R. K Meade.

The larva inhabits a tube, and possesses red blood.
There are no ventral blood-gills.

14 Outline of Life-history

The pupa has a tail-fin composed of thirty to forty long
setae, and the abdominal segments are laterally expanded.
On the second abdominal segment are paired postero-
lateral transparent appendages of small size, enclosing-
minute blood- spaces. There are two conical prominences,
each bearing a long seta, on the vertex of the head.
Corresponding structures were not found in the ^y.
The tracheal gill divides into three primary branches as
usual. The secondary branches are comparatively few ;
each encloses a number of tracheae, which pass to the
ultimate branches.

In the legs of the fly the variety of colouration, noted
by Zetterstedt, was very apparent, though all the speci-
mens were taken at the same time and place (Meanwood
Beck, June, 1899).
chirono- Lyonet met with a tube-dwelling larva, of which an

Sadii?s)* "' account is given in his Anafomie et JSIetamorphoses de
nvon%iro- difere7ifes especes d'Insectes, a posthumous work edited
"^''^' by De Haan. He speaks of the tube as formed of silk and

a sort of moss, plentiful in ditches ; it is open at both
ends, enlarged in the middle, and sufficiently transparent
to allow the movements of the larva to be watched.
Unlike most other tubes secreted or built up by insect-
larvae, the one in question is so flexible as to follow the
bendings of the body when this is energetically contorted.
He describes the method of feeding of the larva, which
seizes the moss between its mandibles and fore-legs, and
drags it into the tube, and its way of moving about, by
grasping with the mandibles and fore-legs alternately.
If the tube becomes lodged so as to be immovable, the
larva quits it and makes another. When free, it swims with
a looping action. The full-fed larva pupates in its tube.
Beyond this point the description does not go. as Lyonet
had mislaid his notes. He figures the tube, the larva, the
pupa, and the male and female fly. De Haan identifies

Mode of Life of Orthocladius 15

the insect as a Tanypus, perhaps T. nervosus, but
it is really a Chironomus. Flies have been reared and
sent to Mr. G. H. Verrall, who says of the species : ' It
belongs to the group of Chironomi which Van der Wulp
called Orthocladius, which have bare wings, the basal joint
of the front tarsi shorter than the tibia, and the thorax
not cowled. It is a large species for that genus, and is
near 0. dUatatus,Y. d. Wulp, but is I think quite distinct,
as Van der Wulp says nothing about the bearded front
tarsi.' This insect has been rediscovered and studied in
all its stages by Mr. T. H. Taylor, whom we have to thank
for the following description and for the illustrative
figures : —

' The larva finds its abode in a floating flock of Spiro- Mode of

. life ot

gyra. It makes a case of jelly-like substance, probably Oit.ho-
out of the secretion of its salivary glands. With a high
power a faintly fibrous structure can be seen in the jelly ;
filaments of Spirogyra and also chain diatoms, &c., are

Fig. 8.— Half-grown larva of Chironomus {Orthocladim) »p. in its case. X 12.

interwoven, and this seems to be the result of a purposive
act. The creature frequently stretches its body out of the
tube and draws filaments towards the outlet, where they
adhere to the viscous material and form a miniature
arbour, like a porch over which creeping plants have
been trained. There is nothing so elaborate in the con-
struction as happens, for example, when a caddis-larva

i6 Outline of Life-history

builds its case ; the Orthocladius-larva appears to rely
almost solely on its own secretion. It feeds voraciously
on the surrounding Spirogyra, and the filaments which
are interwoven are those which have already passed
through its alimentary canal.

' On account of the transparency of its tube, the larva
of Orthocladius is a convenient form for study. Its
activities are : (i) Feeding. A filament of Spirogyra is
seized by the mandibles and bitten in two. Then the
labrum, beginning at one end of the filament, draws it
into the gullet by a stroking action. In the case of
Spirogyra condensata, amongst which the larva was first
obtained, a filament was very soon eaten, but when
aS^. ortliospira was supplied, the feeding was much slower
and apparently more laborious, j)robably on account of
the thick gelatinous sheath of this alga. If there is no
food near, the larva, clinging to the tube by its anal feet,
projects far out, and sweeps rapidly around until it gathers
in a fresh wisp of filaments. In captivity, when the
food-supply is exhausted, it will feed on other filamentous
forms, e. g. Oedogonium. From time to time, the larva,
protruding the tail-end from the tube, evacuates a bolus
of digested Spirogyra, which at once disperses. This was
rather surprising until microscopic examination showed
that the filaments are not masticated, but simply crumpled
up, and the contents removed, except remnants of the
green protoplasm, so that when the filaments are released,
the elasticity of the cell-wall straightens them out.
(2) Respiration. The larva, when lying in its case, waves
its body up and down ; this sets up a current of water,
which flows in at the front-end and out behind ; either
end may be the front-end, as the creature often reverses
its position. The action is quiet and leisurely. (3) Loco-
motion. As the case is not fixed, the larva can travel
without leaving it. It does not creep like a caddis-larva,

Mode of Life of Orthocladiiis

17

but jerks itself forward by a few powerful undulations in
which the flexible case participates. It is unlikely that
the creature swims by this method, which demands con-
siderable effort, and is not continued long at a stretch.
When it swims it leaves the case altogether, and loops
through the water like a blood-worm. In captivity it
has been seen to return to its tube after swimming in
this manner. (4) Building. At intervals the larva
apparently adds fresh material to its case. It with-
draws its head towards the middle, and then works over
the inner surface with its mandibles, from behind for-

FiG. 9. — Egg-mass of Cliironomiis (Ortliocladitis). x lo.

wards, testing the wall continually with its prothoracic
legs. It has not been seen to work in this way on the
outer surface.

' The larva grows rapidly, and pupates in about a fort-
night. The cast larval skin is passed out of the pupal
tube, which is now attached at one end to some fixed
object. The pupa executes respiratory movements inside
the tube, and after a short time— two days or less — comes
out and floats at the surface of the water, where the fly
escapes.

i8 Outline of Life-history

' The eggs are laid in a jelly-mass, about 250 being
counted in one instance. The row of eggs is contained
within a hollow gelatinous rope of firm consistency. The
egg-rope is bent into a series of frequently reversed loops,
and its two ends are approximated, so that it is horse-
shoe shaped. The whole is enveloped in a mass of much
softer jelly. The larvae hatch out in about five days, and
escape into the hollow egg-rope. By the end of the first
day after hatching they become altogether free and take
up their abode in the Spirogyra. They select a point
where several filaments intersect, and begin building their
case. This at first is of very irregular form, but by the
third or fourth day it assumes a tube-like character.
structural " The full-growu larva measures ten to twelve mm. in

peculiari-
ties of Or-
thoelailius.

Fig. 10. — Pupa of Cliironomus (Orthocladius). x 12.

length. The general colour is pale green, and the green
food in the alimentary canal is cons^Dicuous. Four anal
blood-gills are present, while those of the ventral series
on the penultimate segment are wanting. The paired
sensory filaments are set on short stalks, and each consists
of six long bristles. The tracheal system is well developed,
and in this connexion the well-aerated habitat of this
larva may be mentioned. The longitudinal tracheae are
much larger than in C. dorsalis ; they are relatively wide
in front, but narrow backwards. Numerous segmentally
arranged branches are given off. The epithelium of the
main tracheal trunks shows a purple colouration. Two
thoracic intersegmental and eight abdominal intra-

Chirononius and other Diptera

19

segmental spiracles are present ; all are closed. A pair of
small processes were seen on the vertex of the pupa, like
those of C dorsalis. The pu23a has a pair of respiratory
trumpets, which are long, narrowed at each end, and
spinous. , The second abdominal segment bears a median
dorsal prominence beset with spines ; this
perhaps serves to steady the pupa in its
case. The tail-fin is expanded laterally, and
fringed with about 100 setae on each side.

' The fresh-hatched larva does not differ
materially in structure from the full-grown.
The setae of the sensory filaments are not
so numerous, and the tracheal system, if
present at all, is not filled with air at this
time.'

This book will be occupied by a description
of species belonging to the first group (p. 10),
which includes the common large red larvae
or blood- worms. The insect which we have
chiefly studied is called Clilvonomus dorsalis
iC. venustus is a synonym). There are other ^p'/''*^''^, !''"'""

^ >J J I pet of Chiron o-

larvae which difier only in minute details, "1*^^^ (Orthocia-

"^ _ dius). X 100.

such as the number and form of the joints
of the antenna. For most purposes all large red larvae
may be taken as practically identical ; by large is meant
a larva nearly an inch long when full-fed.

We have noted elsewhere (p. 150) the remarkable variety
of structure presented by the larvae and pupae of the
Chironomidae, and even by those of the single genus
Chironomus.

Baron Osten 8acken divides the order Diptera into ckirono-

^ , , -, mus and

three sab-orders : — other

I. Orthorrliaplia Nemocera. II. Orthorrhaplia Brachy- ^^ ^^^'

cera. III. Cyclorrhapha Athericera.

The names adopted for these sub-orders have the

c 2

Fig. II

Re-

20 Outline of Life-history

advantage, as lie says, ' of being descriptive of a cliaracter
taken from their metamorphoses on one side, and of
another character taken from the imago and its principal
organ of orientation (the antennae) on the other. The
names OrthorrhapJia and Cyclorrhaplia were very happily
chosen by Braner to characterize the metamorphoses of
each of these groups, and should therefore be preserved.
The names Nemocera and Atliericera were adopted for
two groups by Latreille, and should likewise be re-
tained ^.'

Chironomus belongs to the sub-order Orthorrhapha

Nemocera, in which the only pupal envelope is a thin

membrane, the proper pupal skin. The antennae are

slender and many -jointed.

simpiifica- If a number of different Dipterous larvae are examined,

larval com- a scries cau be traced which exhibits a twofold gradation,

phcation of g£pg^j.- j-^g ^i^p 1^^,^,^^ ^^^^ ^1-^e imago in opposite directions,

the larva becoming simplified as the imago becomes com-
plicated. This apparently results from the gradual trans-
ference of certain functions and responsibilities from the
larva to the imago. In the more primitive forms the
larva is active, and moves about to seek its food. Its
structure is relatively complex, and its intelligence rela-
tively high. The winged insect is short-lived, and the
eggs are laid all together. The development of the fly
within the body of the larva is gradual, and compatible
with active life. Though the pupa does not feed, it never
becomes motionless, and the pupal stage is brief. In pro-
portion as the fly becomes more expert in seeking out
stores of highly nutritious and easily assimilated food for
its offspring, the larva degenerates. Some flies lay their
ecTcrs in green leaves, in living fungi, or in decaying
carcases, and to find out a site which is exactly suitable
they often require a comparatively long life, keen senses,

' Entomol. M. Mag., 1893, pp. 149-150.

Simplification and Complication

21

and good powers of flight. The eggs must, as a rule, be
laid a few together in carefully selected spots. The
larvae have little to do except to feed ; their limbs, sense-
organs, and even their mouth-parts become reduced or
lost, and the ultimate result may be a headless and foot-
less maggot. So great is the contrast between the larva
and the fly that an elaborate process of reconstruction is
necessary to effect the passage from one to the other.
The grub feeds voraciously, goes to sleep within the
hardened larval skin, and there undergoes a complete
renewal of all its organs and tissues, emerging as a fly,
which, in accordance with the difficulty of its task, is

Fig. 12. — Larva of Corethra. ^ , dorsal view ; J5, side view, x 8. Tlie two pairs
of air-sacs are seen in tlie first and eighth segments behind the head. (From
Miall's Natural History of Aquatic Insects.)

peculiarly active and gifted. A few insects may be
quoted to illustrate the progressive simplification of the
larva and the simultaneous complication of the fly.

1. Corethra (fig. 12). — Larva active, carnivorous, with
prehensile antennae and mouth-parts. Larval head not
retractile ; eye-spots ; a tail-fin. No complete resting-
stage; the pupa lasts four to five days. Fly short-lived :
lays the eggs in a floating mass all together.

2. Chlronomus. — Larva active, concealed, often feeding
on decaying vegetable matter. Larval head often small,
not retractile ; eye-spots and antennae distinct, though

22

Outline of Life- history

small,
to five
on the

No complete resting- stage ; the pupa lasts three
days. Fly short lived ; lays the eggs all together

margin of a stream.

Fig. i3.—Sfratiomi/s rhamacloon. i, larva. 2, larva floating at sixrface of
water. 3, larva descendiug. 4, pupa within larval skin. 5, head of larva,
dorsal view {a a marks the attachment of the thoracic integument). 6, head of
larva, ventral view. The ventral wall is incomplete behind, and the pharynx
and gullet arc exposed. 7, piece of integument. 8, ditto, in section, with conical,
calcareous nails, q, a single calcareous nail (surface view). 10, spiracle, lying in
centre of tail-coronet. (From Miall's Natural History of Aquatic Imccts. 2. ^,
and 4 are copied from Swammerdam )

3. Stratiomys (fig. 13).— Larva fairly active, but only
in rising and sinking ; feeds on microscopic organisms.

Brauer's Classification 23

Larval head minute, lialf-retractile ; the month-parts,
antennae, and eye-spots much reduced. Pupa inactive,
enclosed within the larval skin ; commonly lasts through
the winter (five to seven days in summer). Eggs laid
all together on water- weeds.

4. GalUphora (Blow-fly).— Larva very sluggish, im-
mersed in putrid flesh. Head minute, rudimentar}-,
completely retractile, without antennae or eye- spots, and
with only a pair of hooks in place of mouth-parts.
Eesting-stage complete, passed within the hardened
larval skin ; the pupa lasts fourteen to thirty days
according to the season, during which time the body is
completely reformed. Fly active and long-lived, laying-
eggs in several batches, and feeding on nutritious fluids.

Brauer (1880) has attempted to make use of such Bmuer's
differences as these for the purpose of classification, and classifica-

tion.

has published a system in which larval characters, and
especially the degree of reduction of the larval head, are
employed to denote extensive divisions of Diptera. The
attempt has not proved satisfactory. Very few Diptera
have been studied anatomically in their early stages, and
Brauer has sometimes from defective information placed
the genera wrongly in his own system (Chironomus and
Phalacrocera are examples). Moreover, the organization
of the larva is strongly adaptive, and varies with
external circ*umstances. Almost every degree of reduc-
tion of the larval head can be found in nature, but the
amount of reduction may give little information as to
the affinities of the insect. Adaptive and finely graded
characters prove here, as else^diere, untrustworthy for the
definition of large groups.

The flies of the many species of Chironomus are dis- Adaptive

. resem-

tinguished with difficulty, to judge from the characters biancesami
employed in systematic books, which are largely drawn in Nemo-
from colour, from the relative length of tarsal joints, and '^'^'''''
from the arrangement of the setae on the legs. Though
the flies are so similar, the larvae and pupae may differ
notably according to their species. Some larvae, for

24

Outline of Life-history

B

instance, have red blood, others not ; some have blood-
gills on the eleventh segment, which are wanting in
others. Some pupae have prothoracic respiratory trum-
pets ; others have branched
tracheal gills instead. This
adaptive specialization of
particular stages is no new
thing in zoology. Natural
selection seems to act upon
the separate stages of certain
life-histories almost as it acts
upon species.

Baron Osten Sacken ^
quotes two cases of Nemocera
in which the reverse relation
obtains, that is, the larvae
are closely similar, but the

Fi«. u— Papa of Corethra. A, ^168 SO UnlilvC aS tO bo re-
ventral view. B, side view To show ferred to different families,
the prothoracic respiratory trumpets.

(From MiaU's Natural 'llidoru of rj^]^Q j^^q caSCS are (ci) MvCC-
Aquatic Insects.) ^ ' ^

tobia and Rhyphus, (6) Ano-
pheles and Dixa. We are unacquainted with the early
stages of Rhyphus, and will therefore offer no remarks
on case a. The larvae of Anopheles and Dixa, though
so like as to have deceived one experienced entomologist,
are not, we think, so like as to raise any new biological
question. They are easily and certainly distinguished
by an attentive observer, and many definite points of
difference could be brought forward. They are only
superficially alike, and the resemblance is merely
adaptive, like the resemblance of some Isopod Crustacea
to Millipedes^.

* 1892, pp. 418, 465.

2 It has been remarked that larvae of Noctuae (e. g. Agrotis), thoiigli
almost exactly alike, may produce moths of very different appearance.

CHAPTER II

THE LARVA OF CHIRONOMUS

I. External form.
Many external features of tlie larva can be made out Method of

examina-

witli the lielp of simple lenses, magnifying from five to tion.
thirty diameters, but the details require the compound
microscope. Larvae are easily killed by placing them for
a few seconds in water heated till it feels hot to the
finger. Then they may be placed in water on a glass
slip, and covered with a glass circle. It is often desirable
to take off the weight of the cover by cotton-wool or three
small glass beads. When it is desired to examine a larva
alive, small specimens, not more than half-grown, are to
be preferred. A little cell is made of cotton-wooi ; this is
filled with water; then the larva is picked up with a clean
brush, and dropped inside the cell ; lastly, a glass cover
is gently lowered upon it. The cottcn-wool keeps off the
pressure of the cover, and also restrains the movements
of the larva. The space enclosed by the ring of cotton-
wool should be clear of threads or nearly so, in order that
the object may not be obscured. The beating of the
heart, the contractions of the intestine, the action of the
jaws, and many other operations of the living animal can
be conveniently studied in this way. The details of the
larval head can be made out by treating the parts with
caustic potash. Soak several heads in a ten per cent,
solution for two or three days, wash thoroughly with
water, and mount in glycerine, or (after dehydration) in

26

Segments
and ap-
pendages

The Larva of Chirononius

Canada balsam. Some of the heads should be broken
up with needles. For surface -views, larvae hardened in
Flemming's solution or some similar fluid are particu-
larly useful. Further descriptions of methods are given
in the Appendix.

The body (fig. i) consists of a head and twelve seg-
ments \ The head is rather small, and defended h^
a dense armour. The first three segments behind the
head correspond to the thorax of the fly, and are distin-
guished as pro-, meso-, and metatliorax. The prothorax
has a pair of stumpy claw-bearing feet. The only other
pair of feet, the anal feet, are carried on the last segment.

Fig. 15. — Jjsxrva oi C'!iir<mO]n>(s dorsaUs. A, head, dorsal view. B, ditto, front
view. C, edge of labium, with its teeth and papillae. (From MialFs Nahiral
Hist or !/ 0/ Aquatic Insects.)

The larval
head.

The larval head (figs. 15, 17) is protected on its upper or
dorsal surface by three plates, one median and two lateral.
The median plate (clypeus) carries the labrum, which
hangs like a flap in front of the mouth, and can be bent
backwards. The epipharynx or hind surface of the
labrum, which looks towards the mouth, is furnished with
an elaborate armature, which will be better understood
by reference to fig. 16 than by any explanation in words.

' Tliis is the usual number in Neniocerau larvae. Pericomn and Pliah
crocera have only eleven segments behind the head.

The Larval Head

27

The hooks and spines no doubt aid the larva to gras])
firmly with the mouth, as it continually does, not only
in feeding, but in creeping ; we have also thought it
possible that some of these curious hooks may be used to
guide the threads of silk as the}^ are paid out from the
salivary duct ^. The lateral {e])icran\al) plates bear two
pairs of rudimentary eyes (which are mere pigment-spots
without lenses), as well as the antennae and the jaws.
The epicranial plates curve round to the under-side of the
head, and meet along the middle line in a faintly marked
suture, along which
the head splits at times
of moult. In insects
whose head is capable
of considerable retrac-
tion into the thorax,
there may be no
suture here, but a wide
gap (many Dipterous
larvae) ; where the
mouth-parts are large,
they may almost com-
pletely fill the gap, or a separate piece {suhmentiim or
gida) may defend the space (Orthoptera, Coleoptera).
The fusion of the epicranial plates on the lower surface
of the head of the Chironomus-larva is well suited to an
insect whose head is small, exposed, and furnished with
minute mouth-parts. The genae, which in the cockroacli
and many other insects lie along the sides of the clypeus
and bear the mandibles, are hardly separable in the
Chironomus-larva.

The larval antennae are small ; each consists of a com-
paratively long basal joint, on which is a small, circular,

' The mouth of the tadpole is armed with rows of liorny teeth, which
are not very unlike those of a Chironomus-larva.

Fi(_;. i6.-

-Under surface of labrum of larva,
with its armature.

28

The Larva of Chironomiis

sensory spot; beyond tliis are two terminal pieces of
nearly equal length, one jointed, tlie other simple ; the
number of joints varies with the species.
The jaws. In insccts generally the jaws form three pairs of
appendages, which somewhat resemble legs in their
form, attachment, and mode of development. The man-
dibles, or foremost pair, are the least like legs, being
unjointed and usually toothed. They divide the food,
and may also be used in grasping, fighting, &c. Two

sm-

Fig. 17. — Venti'al surface of head of larva.
ant, antenna. W(7., mandible, mx p maxillary
palp. s)H, submentnm. a', tooth-bearing surface
of labrum. (/, striated flap bordering the sub-
mentum.

Fig. 18. — Mandible
of larva, with chitinous
tendons and muscles
attached. /, fulcrum.

pairs of maxillae follow, which are generally weaker than
the mandibles, divided into many parts, and furnished
with palps or feelers. The second pair of maxillae may
closely resemble the first (Orthoptera, &c.), but they are
often greatly modified for special purposes.

The mandibles of the Chironomus-larva (figs. 17, 18)
are strong and toothed, and so placed that in closing
they do not move in the same plane, but at angles of 45°
with a vertical plane. They are not opposed to each

The Jazvs 29

other, but rather to the strongly toothed snhmentnm.
On the inner side of each mandible is a bunch of setae,
which help to close-in the mouth. The first pair of
maxillae are not so easy to make out, for they are reduced
to stumps, which are concealed from view when the head
is at rest. There is a rudimentary setose prominence
internally;, which in some species bears a row of tooth-
lihe projections, and a minute palp on the outer side.
The maxillae of the second pair, which often unite to
form a single organ, the labium, can only be understood
by comparison with other insects. In the Chironomus-
larva they have lost so many of the original parts that at
first sight they seem to consist of a single comb-like plate,
whose teeth point forwards, and are opposed to the man-
dibles, helping them to grasp or divide the food. On
close examination a second plate is discovered above the
other, and almost hidden by it. The upper plate is of
softer texture, and furnished with many spines and bulb-
like projections, some of which may be connected with
the sense of taste (fig. 15, C). The fore-edges of these two
plates form the hinder border of the mouth-opening.
In Orthopterous insects, which with respect to the mouth-
parts are less specialized than most others, there are two
successive plates at the base of the labium, a basal and
larger piece, called the suhmenturiu and a distal piece, the
mentum, to which the terminal parts are attached. It
seems to us probable that the mentum of the Cliironomus-
larva has gradually slipped behind the submentum.
which now almost completely conceals it. On each side
of the labium is a striated and rather flexible flap (fig. 17, ?/),
which helps to close-in the mouth.

The interior of the larval head is largely occupied by Orgrans en-

. 11 closed

the muscles of the jaws. The slender gullet passes back- within the
wards from the mouth into the body. The salivary ducts
pass forwards to open above the mentum, and behind

30

The Larva of CJiiroiwinus

a minute projection in the floor of tlie nioutli (lingua).
We should naturally expect to find the brain in the
head, but in the blood-worm it has been retracted into
the segment next behind (prothorax). In the fresh-
hatched larva, however, it occupies its normal position in
the head. A few words of explanation may be given
here, though the subject is ^more fully discussed in
chapter iv. The larval head is small in Clilronomus
dorsalis and other blood-worms, as in many other insects
which feed upon dead organic matter. Their food is
plentiful and ready to hand, so that highly developed

Fio. 19. — Median section tliruugh larvul lieail. ws, oesophagus. <?, its diverti-
culum, dv, dorsul vessel, fg, frontal ganglion. I, labrum. mt, mentum. 6m,
submentum. m/n, muscles of mandibles, &c. m'm', muscles which hold the
oesophagus in ^ilace. .s^, salivary duct.

sense-organs are not required in this stage. But the
head of the fly, which is larger, much more complex, and
quite different in shape, has to be formed within the
body of the larva. It is, we may remark, a very wide-
spread error to suppose that the head and other organs
of the imago form during the pupal stage ; their develop-
ment is nearly always far advanced when the pupal stage
begins. The imaginal head is moulded out of folds of the

Reduction of Larval Head in other Neuiocera 31

larval epidermis,, in a way wliicli will be particularly
described hereafter, and mucli more space is required for
these folds than the small, hard head of the Chironomus-
larva can supply. Since the imaginal head has to enclose
the brain, it must form about the larval brain, and this
makes it intelligible that in certain species of Chiro-
nomus the larval brain and the rudiments of the
imaginal head should both shift into the relatively
spacious prothorax. It may well be that the removal of
these parts has led to a further reduction of the larval
head.

Many Nemoceran larvae, including some Chironomus- Eeduction
larvae, have a well-developed head, which lodges the brain j'^g^^^^u'^
and sub-oesophageal ganglion, bears eyes or eye-spots, an- other
temiae, and three pairs of jaws, and is externally defended Nemocent.
by a dense and complete chitinous armour. The eyes are
often "compound in the larvae of Culicidae (Culex, Ano-
pheles, Corethra, Mochlonyx). But where the larva is
addicted to burrowing, and especially where it buries
itself in its food^ the head undergoes more or less reduc-
tion in size, which is nearly always associated with
complete or partial retraction into the thorax. Some-
times only the hinder part of the head is retractile, and
then its chitinous cuticle becomes thinner, or is excavated
by notches, as if only those parts which serve for
muscular attachment were retained. Larval head-reduc-
tion is not unknown in Nemocera, but it is universal, so ^
far as we know, in Brachycera, where it is often carried
much further than in any Nemocera. The back j)art oi
the retractile head shows, at least when not extremely
reduced, a median and a pair of lateral projections, the
remnants of a continuous cephalic shield. Any of the
three principal divisions may be again subdivided. In
heads which are still further reduced the principal parts
which remain are not threefold, but paired, and are, we
are inclined to think, rather paired apodemes than
remnants of the cephalic shield. There are often two
such pairs, which are long, slender, and exclusively con-
cerned with muscular insertion. In extreme cases, e.g.
in the leaf- mining larva of Phytomyza, only a single pair
remains, and this is reduced almost beyond recognition.

32

The Larva of Chironomiis

The eyes and antennae often disappear altogether in
larval Brachycera, while the mouth-parts may be repre-
sented, if at all, only by a pair of large hooks (larvae of
Muscidae), whose homology with true mouth-parts is not
yet adequately established, or by a single crescentic plate
armed with saw teeth, which is perhaps the last vestige of
the submentum. This extreme ])hase of reduction occurs
in the larva of Phytomyza. The fore part of the head
consists in this larva of a hammer-shaped chitinous rod,
which bears in front the toothed crescentic plate. The
rod is articulated behind to a rudimentary skeleton, con-
sisting mainly of a pair of apodemes for muscular attach-
ment. The hammer-shaped rod is swept to and fro like
a scythe, and knocks off the green cells of the leaf, which
are passed down the gullet.

Retraction and reduction of the larval head are usuall}^
associated with retraction of the brain, which often
recedes into the prothorax, or, in the case of the blow-fly
larva, into the metathorax.

The ap-
pendages
of the
thorax and
abdomen.

The protlioracic appendages are short, united at the
base, and armed with numerous hooks ;
they are used in grasping the food, in
creeping, and in holding on to the
burrow. Shortly before a moult new
sets of hooks may be seen within the
functional a]3pendages ; these become
exposed when the old skin is cast
(fig. i). Segments 2-1 1 (not count-
ing the head) bear no locomotive aj^pen-
dages. The twelfth and last segment
bears a pair of long, straight appen-
dages, often called the anal feet (figs, i,
20) They are armed with a few stout
curved spines, which show projecting
cusps where they are attached to the
chitinous cuticle, resembling in this the setae of some
Oligochaet worms, or the hooks on the head of a tape-
worm. Before a moult the new coronet of hooks may be

Fid. 20. — Larva of
Chlronomus dorsalis.
Anal foot, showing its
crown of hooks, the
retractor mnscles, and
the formation of a new
crown of hooks, i^re-
paratory to change of
skin. (From MiaU's
Natural History of
Aquatic Insects.)

The Appendages of Nemoceran Larvae 33

discerned on tlie ventral side of the appendage, a short
distance from its extremity. The anal feet are stiff, and
possess a very limited range of movement. De Geer
compared the long anal feet of the Tanypus-larva to

wooden legs.

Fig. 21. — Larva and pupa of Tanijpiis maculatus, together -with the egg-mass,
a developing egg in side view, tail-plates of pupa in front view, and the pro-
thoracic feet of the larva. (From Miall's Natural History of Aquatic Insects.)

Nemoceran larvae are often footless, but pseudopods, or The ap-
provisional larval feet, occur in most of the families. The l^''^^^^
larva sometimes creeps by means of thickened segmental ceran
rings, which may be armed with spines, and it is a i^'"^^®-
question whether the pseudopods are anything more than

34

The Larva of Chironomiis

local develoiDinents of sucli rings. They vary much in
luimber and position ; three or four may be borne upon
the same segment instead of the usual pair ; and such
facts point to their secondary, adaptive character. On
the other hand, their usual segmental arrangement, and
the normal occurrence of generally similar parts in
insect-embryos, in the larvae of several different orders of
insects, especially Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera (Saw-
Hies), in adult Myriopods and Peripatus, tend to support

the view that they are
true appendages, homolo-
gous with the thoracic
legs of many insects.

Chironomidae often, but
not always, exhibit such
an arrangement of pseu-
dopods as we have de-
scribed in the Chirono-
mus-larva. The larva of
Ceratopogon is footless.
One of us found some
years ago in a stream
near London a Dipterous
larva v/ith remarkable
pseudopods (fig. 22). This
has since been redis-
covered and identified.
The head was very small
and retractile. The
stomach was filled with
a red fluid, as if the
larva had been feeding
upon Tubifex. The body,
which was a quarter of
an inch long, apparently
consisted of a head and eleven segments ; eight seg-
ments (4-1 1 ) were provided with hooked ventral appen-
dages, most of which were minute, but the last pair were
comparable in size to the anal feet of the Chironomus-
larva. From the dorsal surface of the last segment pro-
jected three small, cylindrical processes, each of which
bore four filaments, and resembled the sensory pro-
cesses of Chironomus ^ or Tanypus. No prothoracic

Fig. 22. — Larva 01 Clinoccra showing
pseudopods on eight segments, i, dorsal
view. 2, side view. X 20.

See pp. 35, 49.

The Anal Feet of Caddis-ivorms 35

appendages were seen. It is therefore possible that the
prothoracic and anal feet of a Chironomus-larva may be
the remnants of a series which once extended over many-
segments ^.

In the larva of Simulinm both the prothoracic and the
anal' feet are recognizable, though they are largely fused,
especially the anal pair, which constitute the posterior
sucker.

Caddis-worms, which also inhabit tubes of various The anal
materials woven together, possess a pair of hooked feet at ^^®,*^/-*
the hinder end of the body, and hold on by means of worms"
them, in the same way as Chironomus-larvae.

The eleventh segment of the Chironomus-larva has two Biood-giiis.
pairs of ventral apjjendages, which are slender, thin- walled
and tubular ; these are believed to be respiratory ; they
are wanting in fresh-hatched larvae, as also in the surface-
haunting species.

From the dorsal surface of the twelfth segment project Appen-
two bunches, each of five long setae. With each bunch thfiaslseg-
a small ganglion is associated, so that they are apparently ^^^ "
sensory in function 2. Close to the anus are two pairs of
small anal papillae, or blood-gills (see figs, i, 24). These
are tubular, and, we believe, respiratory. In some species
a long seta springs from the base of each papilla of the
upper pair. Either end of the body may require to be
protruded from the tube ; each is therefore furnished Avith
organs for holding on and for perception. There are
respiratory organs only at the tail-end, for these can be

' As these sheets are passing through tlie press, Mr. T. H. Taylor lias
reared the fly from the larva described above, v^liich is the hitherto
imknown larva of Clinocera (fam. Empidae). Some Hemerodromia-larvae
are similar, but have only seven pairs of pseudopods.

^ In the larva of Tanypus (fig. 21) two similar bunches of filaments are
carried on long cylindrical joints. The larvae of two undetermined
species of Chironomus, which burrow in the leaves of Potamogeton
natans, show tufts of setae, standing out from the sides of most of the
segments. The thoiacic segments and the twelfth abdominal segment
in one species, the prothorax and the last two abdominal segmeats in
the other, have no such tufts. The dorsal sensory tufts of ordinary
Chironomus-larvae may be serially homologous with these.

D 2

Chitinoiis
cuticle.

36

The Larva of Chironomus

effectively employed whetlier tlie tail is in tlie tube or
out of it, owing to the power wliicli the larva possesses of
maintaining a regular flow of water through the tube

(P- 3)-

2. Epidermis and Chitinous Cuticle.

In most parts of the body of the larva the chitinous
cuticle is transparent and flexible. In the head, however,

Fio. 23.— I, Epidermis from ventral blood-gill of larva. 2, ditto from dorsal
wall. 3, portion of detaclied basement-membrane with dead cells, found float-
ing in the body-cavity.

it is harder, and of deeper colour than elsewhere. In the
prothorax it attains its greatest thickness, perhaps for
the greater security of the bi-ain and the important

Fig. j4.— Anal blood-gill of larva, showing epidermis and floating filaments.

imaginal organs which develop within, and consists of
numerous layers.
Epidermis. The Underlying epidermis consists in part of a single
layer of minute and close-fitting cells, resting on a base-
ment-membrane (fig. 23). The epidermic cells are best

Folds of Epidermis

37

seen towards tlie middle of each segment ; in other places,
such as at the fore part of the prothorax, at the junctions
of the segments, or in the anal blood-gills, they take the
form of an undifferentiated layer of protoplasm, in which
nuclei lie scattered. In these situations no cell-divisions
can be made out either in the living larva or in sections ^.
The protoplasmic layer is here very unequally distributed,
being often drawn out into irregular internal processes.

Fig. av— Internal elevations or thickenings of epidermis, as seen in dorsal
wall of prothorax of living larva, surface view.

In the anal blood-gills it attains its greatest thickness,
and here the large nuclei, thinly covered by protoplasm,
bulge into the blood-cavity.

The epidermis often exhibits small folds which do not Folds of

affect the chitinous cuticle outside. They become parti-
cularly evident shortly before a moult. At such time

ex^iderniis.

Fig. 26.— Section through dorsal wall of prothorax, showing thickenings
of undifferentiated epidermis, c, cuticle, e, epidermis.

there may be seen within the transparent blood-gills, for
instance, a wrinkled epidermis, whose surface is plainly
larger than that of the cuticle within which it lies (fig. 28).

' A syncytium, or continuous layer of protoplasm witli scattered
nuclei, has often been observed in the epidermis of Arthropods, especially
in early stages, as also in Rotifera, Gordiidae, &c. See Leydig, 1864 b,
pp. 21, 34, and the text-books of Comparative Anatomy.

38

The Larva of Cliironomiis

Filamen-
tous cor-
puscles.

Protoplasmic prominences also, which may be the begin-
nings of folds, are often seen on the inner surface of the
epidermis, especially on the dorsal wall of the prothorax.

Peculiar filaments, often much
drawn out, as if they were composed
of protoplasm or some other plastic
substance, are common in the blood-
current, and are demonstrable in the
more transparent parts of the body,
such as the anal feet or the blood-gills
(fig. 29, i). No nuclei have been
clearly seen within them, and any proj^er motion, or any
power of spontaneously changing their shape which they

Fig. 27. — Diagram to
illustrate the probable
mode of conversion of one
of the thickenings into
a fold, c, cviticle. e, epi-
dermis.

Wanderiuj
colls.

Fio. 28.— Ventral blood-gill during ecdysis, showing the epidermis retracted
from the old cuticle.

may have, is masked by the rapidity of their translation.
They are so like the drawn-out protoplasmic processes of
the epidermis as to suggest that ^

they have been detached there-
from to float for a time in the
blood.

; Other corpuscles may be found
aggregated beneath the epider-
mis, and these too are best de-
monstrated in the more trans-
parent parts of the body. They
are irregular in shape, but not
extremely elongate (fig. 29, 2).
Sometimes they become densely
aggregated ; they are not carried along by the blood-stream,
so far as we know, though they probably travel. Nuclei

Fig 29. — Fihxmentous cor-
puscles of blood. I , as seen in
the circulation. 2, as seen
undergoing amoeboid clianges
in the ventral blood-gill.

Meandering Cells

39

have been observed within them, and they appear to
undergo very slow amoeboid changes. Such cells, adherent
to the inner face of the epidermis, have been found also in
the blow-fly larva ; they are the wandering cells (Wander-
zellen) of Metschnikoff and Kowalewsky ^ From the
various states of aggregation which these cells exhibit,
and from their slow change of figure, it is probable that,
like the corresponding cells of the blow-fly, they can

Fig. 30. — Third abdominal segment of larva and parts of two others laid open
from above. In the middle line is the nerve-cord with tlie fourth and fifth
abdominal ganglia, and paired nerves passing to the body-wall. In front of
each ganglion a transverse nerve crosses the nerve-cord. The recti ventrales
muscles lie next to the nerve-cord, and outside these are the transverse and
oblique muscles. A pair of groups of oenocytes are also seen.

move from place to place, and that, however they may be
scattered, they retain the power of combining into an
epithelium. The blastoderm of many insect-embryos is
formed out of cells which previously moved about in

' Metschnikoff, 1885 ; Kowalewsky, 1887, pi. xxvi (fig. 4).

40

TJie Larva of Chironomiis

the yolk. In Hydroids, in Echinoderms, and even in
vertebrates, cells are known to detacli themselves
from an epithelium and to wander about the body,
afterwards arranging themselves into an epithelium
again ^
Oenocytc?. Closely associated with the epidermis of the Chiro-
nomus-larva are some peculiar cells, named oenocytes by
Wielowiejski^ from their colour, which is that of yellow
wine (figs.30, 31). The oenocytes are of two sizes, one much
larger than the other. The large ones occur only in the

Fic. 31. — Oenocytes and outer fatty layer, as seen in third abdominal
segment of living larva, c, cuticle, a, group of oenocytes. &, solitary
spherical oenocyte in front of the group, r, outer fatty layer, m, muscles
in transverse section.

a^bdominal segments, rather nearer to the ventral than to
the dorsal surface. They form paired and segmentally
arranged groups of four cells, which are often, but not
uniformly, arranged in a lozenge close together. The
cells are oval, nucleated, and attached to the epidermis
by threads of protoplasm and fine tracheal branches.
The nucleus may occupy nearly half the diameter of the
cell, but is sometimes much smaller. The colour is due,
according to Wielowiejski, to minute granules ; no oil-
drops are present. There is also a fifth cell, of spherical

' Kleinenberg, 1886, p. 6 ; Met.schnikoff, 1885.

1886.

Oenocytes

4^

shape, lying in front of the group ; according to Wielo-
wiejski it always contains two nuclei, one large and
central, the other very small and peripheral ^ ; it is
more distinctly granular than the grouped cells. The
twelfth segment (ninth abdominal) has no group of four
cells, but one pair of spherical cells, and also a single cell
at the base of each anal foot. The large oenocytes do
not occur in young larvae, though they are conspicuous in
those which are full-grown ; they persist in the pupa
and imago, but undergo some reduction in size. Accord-
ing to Graber (1891) the oenocytes are developed from
the ectoderm.

Fig. 32. — A solitary
spherical oenocyte,
with contained gra-
n\iles.

Fig. li. — Small oenocytes, attached
to inner face of epidermis, i, svirface
view. 2, section.

The small oenocytes are very numerous on the inner
surface of the epidermis of the last thoracic and the
abdominal segments, especially towards the ventral
surface. They contain yellow granules, like those of
the large oenocytes, and often occur in pairs. Both
readily stain with carmine.

Oenocytes occur in Culex, Corethra, and many other
Diptera, and also in insects of other orders (Wielowiejski).
Nothing has been definitely ascertained respecting their
function. "Wielowiejski points out their resemblance to

1 The same is true of Phalacrocera (^Miall and Shelford, 1897, pi. xi,
fig- 33)-

42

TJie Larva of CJiironounis

Jnscrtion
ol jianselos

blood-corpuscles, and also to the jjericardial cells and the
cells of the fat-body. They are bathed by blood, and he
thinks that they probably secrete and
discharge into the blood some unknown
constituent.

We are disposed to entertain, though
we cannot fully establish, the view
held in whole or in part by Weismann.
Graber, Wielowiejski, SchJiffer, Ticho-
morofif, and Korotnefif, viz. that the
blood-corpuscles and oenocytes of in-
sects are derived, directly or indirectly,
from the ectoderm. With respect to
the fat-cells and the pericardial
cells, want of evidence prevents us
from throwing them into the same
group, as Graber and Wielowiejski
would do \

AVeismann ^ remarks of the larva
of Musca that the epidermis is con-
tinued beneath the insertion of the
muscles of the bod^^'-wall, a necessary
j)rovision, it would seem, for the re-
newal of the chitinous cuticle without
disorganization of the muscles. The
same is true of Chironomus (fig. 96).
and it is remarkable how little the
epidermic cells alter in size or ap-
pearance at the places of muscular
insertion. It is probable that the
remark holds good of Arthropods in
o;eneral.

«7

Fig. 34. — Nervous
sj-stem of yoiing larva.
<', first thoracic gan-
glion, a', first abdomi-
nal ditto, a', seventh
abdominal ditto. The
connectives still retain
their double charac-
ter.

' Graber, Vnher die emhryonale Anlarje den Blut- iind Fdt.gen\hes der Insekien.
Biol. CeniraWlalt, Bd. xi, pp. 212-224 (1891}. ^ 1863.

Brain 43

3. The Nervous System.

The nervous s^^stem of the Chironomns-larva (figs. 34-39) (iangim.
consists of a brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion, a sub-
oesophageal ganglion, three thoracic, and eight abdominal
ganglia, the last of which supplies two segments, and is
closely applied to the last but one.

The brain is, as usual, two-lobed, the lobes bulging Brain,
outwards and downwards. Oesophageal connectives can
hardly be said to exist, and the sub-oesophageal ganglion
lies not behind, but beneath the brain. Both the brain
and the sub-oesophageal ganglion properly belong to the
head, in which they are actually lodged in most insects.
In the larvae of D'lptera Nemocera their position varies ;
they may lie in the head (Culex, Simulium, Phalacrocera,
some species of Chironomus), lialf in and half out (Tipula.
Ptj^choptera), or altogether behind it (some species of
Chironomus, Dicranota). In the ' acephalous ' larva
of the blow-fly they occupy the metathoracic segment.
In the embryo and very young larva of Chironomus
dorsalis the brain lies in the head, from which it gradually
shifts backwards during the first few days after hatching ^
After the first moult the small larval head is almost
entirely filled by the jaw-muscles. Hence the nerve-
centres, as well as the rudiments of the head of the fly,
which begin to form in a later stage, can onlj^ find the
room which they require in the thorax.

The first thoracic ganglion of the Cliironomus-larva Ganglia
lies in the prothorax, the second and third in the meso- nectives .>f
thorax. The first abdominal is shifted forwards from its eord' *
proper segment to the metathorax (fig. 35).

The connectives between the ganglia, though really
double, appear to form a single cord behind the first
abdominal ganglion, except in very young larvae, where

' Weisniiimi, 1863.

44

TJie Larva of Chirononms

they are still distinct \
connective-tissue slieatli.

Tlie nerve-cord lias the usual
In the ganglia the masses of

Fig. 35. — Nervous system of adult larva (fore part, extending to second
abdominal ganglion, together with muscles of body-wall). The nerves are black.
Ktes.g, sub-oesophageal ganglion, im, rudiments of imaginal legs, pro.g, pro-
thoracic ganglion, t.n. i-io, transverse nerves, mesg, mesothoracic ganglion.
itiet.g, metathoracic ganglion. 1-8 ah.y, abdominal ganglia. «', nerves passing
from first abdominal ganglion to muscles of that segment. N.B. — The Ijrain is
not shown.

^ The connectives between the j^ro- and mesothoracic ganglia enclose
between them the insertions of a puiv of strong muscles, which arise from
the hinder margin of the mesothorax. The separation of the thoracic
connectives by muscles is more evident in large and active insects, such
as tlie cockroach. (See Miall and Denny, 1886, fig. 34.)

Transverse Nerves

45

nerve-cells are, as in other insects, ventral to tlie fibrous
tracts.

Each franglion sends branches to its own se2:ment. Branches

^ ^ ° of distribu-

"Where the ganglion is shifted out of its proper segment tion.
the branches retain their primitive distribution.

The last ganglion sends a pair of nerves to the ventral
surfaces of each of the last two abdominal segments.
There are probably nerves, which we have not clearlj-

^

t/r.'i'iiKi.M:

s^i.

Fig. ,^6. — Nervoiis system of adult larva (hinder part), s.gl, sexual glands.
«", n'", nerves i^assing from last ganglion to muscles of eighth and ninth
abdominal segments. 6, ventral blood-gills. The rest as in fig. 35.

seen, connected with the ganglia at the bases of the
bunches of sensory hairs (pp. 35, 49).

A transverse nerve proceeds from each of the thoracic Transverse

„ 1 1 • 1 1 nerves.

and abdominal ganglia, except the hrst abdominal, and
runs transversely above the ventral cord, usually along
the junction of two segments (figs. 35, 36). Each is con-
nected by a longer or shorter median nerve with one of

46

The Larva of Cliirononius

the ganglia in front or behind ; and at the junction
of the median and transverse nerves there is a minute
triangular plexus. The first, second, third, and tenth
transverse nerves are thus connected with the thoracic
ganglia in front of them, while the fourth to the ninth
inclusive join the second to the seventh abdominal

ganglia behind. The origin
of the tenth and last trans-
verse nerve lies immediately
above the eighth abdominal
ganglion, and its median nerve
is too short for observation.
The first abdominal ganglion
has no transverse nerve, owing
to the concentration of the
ganglia in this region, where
there is more than one gan-
glion to a segment. Each
transverse nerve lies along
the junction of two segments,
and the figures show that every
junction between the prothorax
and the eighth abdominal seg-
ment has its nerve. The third
and tenth transverse nerves
take an oblique course owing to the forward displace-
ment of the ganglia from which they spring.

Similar nerves have been elaborately figured and de-
scribed byLyonet^ in the caterpillar of Co5SM5 lign'qjerda;
by Newport- in the caterpillar of Sphinx ligustri; hy
Leydig '^ in Locusta inridisslma ; they have also been
found in various other insects'*. Lyonet gives no

Fio. 37. — Thoracic ganglia and
transverse nerves of larva, the
latter in black. Letters as in
<ig. 35. t.mitfi, transverse muscle.

' Traiti anakiniiquc, p. 2or, pi. ix, fig. i. '^ 1834, p. 401, pi. xvi.

' 1864 a, pi. vi, fig. 3. See also Leydig, 1864 b, p. 203.
* Ann. Sci. Nat.; Zool., x, pp. 5-10 (1858).

Transverse Nerves

47

explanation of their special
function, but notes that they
communicate with branches
of the ventral cord, and
send branches towards the
spiracles. Newport calls
them transverse nerves from
the direction of their prin-
cipal branches, and also re-
spiratory nerves from their
special distribution to the
breathing organs. Blan-
chard and Leydig^ identify
them with the sympathetic
nervous system of Verte-
brates. Since there is no
experimental proof of their
function, we adopt the neu-
tral name of transverse
ney'ves'-^. Their regular de-
velopment throughout the
body of the Chironomus-
larva, which (in our species)
has no open spiracles, and

' (1864 b), p. 203.

- H. Landois, in liis juvenile
thesis, Be systemate nervorum trans-
versorum (Greifswald, 1863), tliinks
that transverse nei'ves are parti cu-
hirly well developed in insects which
have in the winged state a mobile
abdomen (p. 24).

Fio. 38. — Stomato-gastric nerves of larva, aes, oesophagus, crt, cardiac chamber
of stomach, rf.v, dorsal vessel. 6r, brain, ^/".(y, frontal ganglion. ?'.«, recurrent
nerve, w*, nerve passing from brain to frontal ganglion (Newport's fourth nerve j.
77i', point of division of recurrent nerve. <?•, trachea, jj.jf, paired ganglia. dv.7i,
nerve to dorsal vessel, dv.g, ganglia of dorsal vessel, gn, gastric nerve, to cardiac
chamber. The course of the recurrent nerve beneath the dorsal vessel is dotted.

gastric
nerv'es

48 TJie Larva of Chironoiniis

only vestiges of a tracheal system, is an argument against
their respiratory character — not a conclusive argument,
however, for at a later time spiracles form close to the
junctions of the segments.

stomato- A special system of stomaio-gastric nerves and ganglia
is found upon the oesophagus and the fore part of the
aorta (fig. 38) ^ Paired nerves proceed forwards from the
lobes of the brain, and unite to form a frontal ganglion
on the oesophagus. From the frontal ganglion a median
recurrent nerve passes backwards between the aorta and
the oesophagus. Beneath the brain this divides into
two branches, which enter paired ganglia, and con-
tinue beyond them to the stomach. In some other
Dipterous larvae^, paired nerves are found, which pass
backwards from the brain, and enter small ganglia
on either side of the aorta. In the Chironomus-larva
similar ganglia are seen (fig. 38, di\g) ; we are not, how-
ever, quite satisfied in this case as to the nervous connexion
Avith the brain. In some other insects a more extensive
system of paired ganglia exists, sending branches to the
oesophagus, aorta, and occasionally to the salivary'
glands.

Sense- The orgaus of special sense found in the larva are the

eye-spots, the antennae, and the sensory prominences on
the last segment. The eye-spots are little more than
blotches of pigment without lenses. There are two
pairs of them. In the larvae of several Culicidae the
anterior pair become complex. In Corethra. Weismann
found that the fresh-hatched larva possesses only one
pair ; that the second pair are developed in front ot
the first as a series of folds in two deep invaginations
of the epidermis ; that the first pair then begin to
degenerate ; and that the second j)air are true compound

^ This is the sijmpathetic system of Johannes Miiller, 1828.
'^ Phalacrocera (Miall and Shelf ord, 1897, \>\. x, figs. 19. 20).

irgans.

Sense-organs 49

eyes, whicli are never replaced, but persist as the eyes
of the fly. If this is really the case, the number of
elements must be greatly increased during transforma-
tion. Weismann believes that the imaginal eye of
Corethra,. though not superficial, is functional in the
transparent larva '.

The antennae consist of a basal piece, relatively large,
which carries two terminal pieces of nearly equal length,
one jointed and one simple, the former consisting of four
joints ; a stout seta projects from the basal joint. There
is a circular sensory spot about the middle of the basal
joint; a similar spot occurs on the maxillary palp of
the Phalacrocera-larva.

It seems probable that the antennae of the Chironomus-
larva are of limited physiological importance ; they are
minute and of comparatively simple structure.

On the dorsal surface of the last segment, and at the
very end of the body, are a pair of sensory appendages.
Each bears several long setae, and is in close connexion
with a ganglion at its base. The ganglion is no doubt
connected with the abdominal nerve-cord, but we have
not made out the connexion to our satisfaction (see p. 45).
In the Tanypus-larva these prominences are long, and
the setae numerous (see p. 33).

4. Alimentary Canal.

The alimentary canal of the larva takes a nearly General
straight course through the body, which it slightly tion.
exceeds in length (fig. 40). It is subdivided into oeso-
phagus, stomach, and intestine. The stomach includes
a distinct anterior region, which we shall call the cardia
or cardiac chamber, while the intestine is divisible into
a small intestine in front, and a large intestine or colon

' Weismann, 1866, p. 16.

UIALL. E

50 TJie Larva of Chirononius

beliind. There is no separate rectum, and tlie parts
known in other insects as crop and gizzard are not
distinguishable from the rest of the oesophagus. The
stomach, small intestine, and colon all begin at their
maximum width and gradually narrow behind.

The usual appendages of the alimentary canal are the
salivary glands, the glandular caeca, and the Malpighian
tubules. All these are found in our larva.

Nomencia- We shall devotc a few lines to the nomenclature of
*'^'^' the parts of the alimentary canal in insects generally,

and to the definition of the terms which will be employed
here. The alimentary canal in all insects is divided on
developmental grounds into three primary sections : —
(i) the fore-gut or stomodaeum, Fr. preintestin, Ger.
Vorderd'arm ; (2) the rnid-gid or ivesenteron, Fr. medi-
intestin\ Ger. MiUeldarm ; (3) the hind-gut ov proctodaeum,
Fr. posfinfestm, Ger. Hiuterdann. The mid-gut is the
primitive alimentary canal, and in animals which pass
through a well-marked gastrula- stage, it is at first a large
internal cavity, formed by infolding of the hollow blasto-
sphere, and lined by entoderm (hypoblast). The fore-gut
and hind -gut arise by infolding of the ectoderm from
the mouth and anus respectively. In all Arthropods
they are lined by chitinous cuticle. The beginning of
the hind-gut is marked, in nearly all insects, by the
insertion of the Malpighian tubules '^.

The fore-gut of insects includes the oesophagus, and
often exhibits a large dilatation, which may be followed
by a chamber with thickened muscular w^all and dense
chitinous lining. The lining may be shaped into internal
teeth or ridges. For the dilatation the name crop (Fr.
jabot, Ger. Kropf) is in general use, while the muscular
chamber is called gizzard (Fr. gesier, Ger. Kaiimagen).
Plateau'' objects that the so-called gizzard of insects
has no analogy with that of birds. This is put strongly ;

* This term is proposed by Biilbiani, 1890, p. 3.

^ Ptychoptera, according to Gehuchten, 1890, and Meloidae, according
to Beauregard, 1886, are exceptions. Here the Malpighian tubules are
said to pass off from the mid-gut. The same peculiarity is believed to
obtain in scorpions.

' 1874, p. 114.

Nomenclature

oes

'C 5-1

/?^t

\- --S£

•^O^

Fig. 39. — Bisected larva. 6r, brain, s.g, salivary gland.
055, oesophagus, flw, dorsal vessel, o.rf.i', outlet of ditto. s<,
stomach, m.t^ Malpighian tubule, s.i, small intestine. L?',
large intestine. 7(t, heart, i a.g^ first abdominal ganglion.
Cffl, cardiac chamber of stomach, pm, peritrophic membrane.
«.C, nerve-cord. sx.g. se.xual gland. 7ifr, hoolis of anal feet.
tq, terminal ganglion of nerve-coixl. vjr, ventral blood-

gills.

E 2

Fig. 40. — Alimentary canal of
larva, tes, oesophagus. s(/, sali-
vary gland, crt, cardiac chamber
of stomach. *<, stomach, mi,
Malpighian tubules. c7(, di-
lated chamber at beginning of
intestine. 9i, small intestine,
col. colon.

52 The Larva of Chironomus

there is at least tlie resemblance implied in a thick
muscular wall and a dense cuticle. Of course the gizzard
of the bird is part of the vertebrate stomach, while that
of the insect is part of the arthropod oeso])hagus. If we
will employ no vertebrate terms except strictly in the
vertebrate sense, we shall be forced to invent unfamiliar
and cumbrous expressions of our own. Plateau's appareil
valvulalre. which he proposes to substitute for gizzard,
is liable to be confounded with the oesophageal valve
next to be mentioned. The lower end of the oesophagus
of insects commonly protrudes into the mid-gut, and
is then reflected, forming a circular valve, the cardiac
or oesophageal valve of authors. The latter designation
is preferable.

For the mid-gut or mesenteron in the coinpletely
developed insect, stomach is a convenient term. Plateau
points out that the so-called stomach of insects is absorbent,
l3ut not secretory. It is not, however, clear that such
plijrsiological distinctions, even if well founded ', need
affect our nomenclature. The fore part of the stomach
sometimes forms a distinct cardiac charnber, and into
this, if present, the glandular caeca, which often project
from the stomach, usuallj^, but not always, open.

The name intestine may be applied to all parts deve-
loped from the hind-gut. The intestine is often divisible
into a fore section (small intestine), a middle section
[colon), and a terminal section [recttmi). The walls of
the rectum are often longitudinally folded.

Mouth. The mouth lies between the labrum in front and the

labium behind ; on either side are the mandibles and
the greatly reduced maxillae (fig. 19}. The labrum
has the form of a flap ; its free border is bent back-
wards when at rest, and the surface which faces the
mouth (epiphari/nx of some authors) is armed with many
teeth, ras23ers, and setae, whose disposition can be seen
in fig. 16. Some of these are probably sensory, others
defensive, and others again masticatory or prehensile.
The labrum is muscular and mobile ; it is often employed
to assist the mandibles in rasping the food, grinding it

' See Secretion of the stomacli, p. 57.

Oesophagus 53

against tlie toothed labium, or cramming it into tlie
mouth. In the floor of the mouth above the mentum
(see p. 29) is a small forward projection, the lingua,
behind which the salivary ducts open.

The oesophagus or gullet is a straight and narrow tube Oesopha-
of simple structure. It is lined by an epithelium (not
easily seen, and often only to be discerned by the
cell-nuclei) and a chitinous cuticle, which is sharply
folded lengthwise, so that the enclosed cavity is almost
obliterated except when food is actually passing along
it '. Outside the epithelium comes a muscular coat,
invested inside and out by a thin membrane, which
sometimes becomes separated in a macerated gullet. The
muscular coat consists of a number of transverse rings,
each of which is a cell, with thin cell-wall and nucleus.
The ends of the cells are in contact on the ventral
side, and form oblique sutures. In optical section they
often look deceptively like an epithelium. Each cell,
e:5^cept in very young larvae, encloses a skein of
fibres, which show cross-striation. The fibres lie in
the direction of the length of the cell, i. e. at right
angles to the oesophagus'". In the head the gullet is
held in place by several pairs of slender muscles, which
pass downwards and forwards from the occipital region
(fig. 19). A small pouch extends forwards from its dorsal
wall near the mouth.

The dilatations of the oesophagus, known as crop and Oesopha-
gizzard, which in many insects and myriopods facilitate
a process of oesophageal digestion, as explained by
Plateau -^ do not occur in the Chironomus-larva. The

' In a cast skin the chitinous lining is drawn out, and remains attached
to the skeleton of the head as a long crumpled band.

2 A much finer striation, which we believe to be due to local and tem-
poraiy aggregations of the cell-protoplasm, often forms across the cell
from side to side. This is shown in fig. 52.

= 1875, 1878.

54 TJie Larva of Chironomus

tube enlarges a little behind, and tben seems suddenly
to dilate into the much wider stomach. A longitudinal
section of the parts shows, however, that the oesophagus
protrudes well into the larger chamber, and then returns
upon itself, forming in this manner a circular valve,
which we call, with Balbiani ^, the oesophageal valve
(fig. 47). It lies in the fore part of the larval meta-
thorax. The oesophageal cuticle is here very sharply
folded so that it appears rosette-like in cross-section ;
in the Chironomus-larva this is only a more pro-
nounced form of the folding which extends through-
out the oesophagus, but in some other insects it is
a special feature of the included termination of the
oesophagus.

The oesophageal valve retards the passage of solid food
into the stomach, and further, delivers it, not into the
beginning of the stomach, but some way down. The
epithelium of the cardiac chamber, into which the caeca
usually open when they exist, is therefore not brought
into direct contact with the solid food. Only dissolved
food, microscopic particles, and digestive fluids actually
reach this epithelium. In the Chironomus-larva and
many other insects an inner tube, which will shortly
be described under the name of the peritropMc membrane,
conducts the solid food to the very end of the stomach,
and thus completely protects every part of the epithelium
of the stomach from abrasion -.

stomach. The stomach, mid-gut, or mesenteron is a long cylin-
drical tube, which occupies more than half the length of
the alimentary canal. It is widest in front, gradually
tapering to its junction with the small intestine, which is
indicated by the four Malpighian tubules.

Cardia. The chamber which encloses the oesophageal valve is

' 1890. p. 26.

- For fuller information resi^ecting the oesophageal valve, see p. 60.

Cardia 55

often called proveiitr/culus, in the belief that it is, like
the crop or gizzard of many insects, a dilatation of the
oesophagus. Weismann indeed expressly asserts that it
is such ^ Our sections of Chironomus- embryos (fig. 127)
lead us to a different conclusion, Avhich is confirmed by
the study of other insects. In Ptychoptera ^ Dicranota ^,
and the cockroach '^ the break in the epithelium is quite
unmistakable, and shows that the outer wall, which
in the cockroach is drawn out into caecal projections, is
mesenteric and not stomodaeal. The bee ^' and many
other insects show essentially the same structure. The
chitinous lining of the stomodaeum can often be distinctly
traced as far as the break in the epithelium, where it
disappears ; in other cases the peritrophic membrane
described below introduces complications, or the chitinous
lining disappears graduall3^ "We believe that all or very
nearly all of the outer wall of the tube which encloses
the oesophageal valve is developed from the mesenteron,
and that caeca in this region always belong to the
mesenteron. It is therefore inappropriate in our
opinion to apply the term proventriculus to the part
in question, which when distinct we call the cardia,
or the cardiac chamber of the stomach. The term pro-
ventriculus has been long associated with the gizzard of
insects.

The cardiac chamber, or beginning of the stomach, lies structure

11 mi of stomach.

in the metathorax ; it is externally well marked. Ihree
sets of short caeca project from its outer surface (fig. 41) ;
they have no muscular wall ^. A pair of muscles, arising,

' 1863, p. 35 and fig. 96. - Geliuchten, 1890.

•' Miall, 1893, fig. 18.

* Miall and Denny, 1886, fig. 64, p. 120.

* Schiemenz, 1883.

* These caeca vary much in different Dipterous larvae; they are usually
short, but long in the blow-fly larva ; the number may be two (Cteno-
phora), four (Tipula, Simulium, &c.), or many.

56

The Larva of Chironomiis

we believe, from the junction of tlie meso- and meta-
tliorax on the ventral surface, are inserted into the fore
part of the chamber (fig. 41) ^ The outer surface of the
succeeding part of the stomach is studded over by very
numerous prominences, which bulge out between the
crossed fibres of the muscular coat, being covered only by

i>^vy'*?")^^^^ ^^ '^'K-Jf fajwl

--M

^ ^ ';:^ ( (©)

new xvif

Fig. 41. — I, cardiac chamber
of stomach of larva, showing
its three tiers of caeca. 2,
transverse section of fore part
of stomach, showing the epi-
thelium, and the food enclosed
in a peritrophic membrane.

Fig. 42. — Epitheliuni of larval .stomach.
I, 2, from middle ; 3, from fore end. \vi. i the
striated seam can be observed around the
island-like iolds of epithelium; in 3 the
nuclear figures are shown.

a thin connective-tissue layer. They are not caecal pro-
cesses but solid outgrowths, consisting each of a single
epithelial cell, or parts of two such cells ; when seen in
face they form a tolerabl}^ regular mosaic. Before the
middle of the stomach is reached these prominences

' Similar muscles are found in (ho crane-fly larva.

Secretion of the Stomach 57

subside. In the middle and hinder part the epithelium
is sometimes thrown into shallow folds of irregular
shape, which, when seen in face, look like islands with
intervening channels (fig. 42, i). The epithelial cells
here assume a character which is usual in the stomach
of insects, though by no means peculiar to it, being
drawn out into numerous filaments, which are some-
times very long'; they may resemble, when contracted,
the ' striated hem ' usual in the intestinal epithelium of
vertebrates.

Fio. 43. — Epithelium of stom.ach, showinfi^ jirotrusions and detacheil peri-
trophic membrane. Tlie striated hem is not drawn.

Protrusions from the p-landular epithelium of the Secretion
stomach (such as those described and figured by stomach.
Gehuchten in the larva of Ptychoptera) are easily seen
at certain times in the stomach of the Chironomus-larva :
they are finely granular, and protrude through the striated
hem (fig. 43 \ In an earlier phase the granular substance
(mucigen) collects along the inner face of every cell, and
is readily distinguished from the ordinary cell-protoplasm
in which the nucleus lies ^. During active secretion large
drops of mucus are squeezed out, and blend with the
drops from neighbouring cells to form a viscid mass.
Empty cells, with only the basal protophism and the
nucleus, are occasionally but rarely seen. We agree
with Gehuchten in believing that the secreted fluid

' Frenzel, 1885. - But soo noto to p. 60.

58

The Larva of Cliiyononms

Musculiii'
coat, of
stomach.

does not at once come into contact with, the food ; it
is separated therefrom by the peritrophic membrane,
which, extends throughout the stomach. Between the
epithelium and the membrane is a narrow space, which
is occupied by a granular iiuid, probably derived
from the protrusions ; it contains also granules of
larger size, which we suppose to come from the food.
It is not necessary to suppose with Gehuchten that
the secreted fluid diffuses through the peritroj^hic

membrane ; the granules
just noted indicate that
another communication
exists. We think it prob-
able that fluid squeezed out
from the food in the oeso-
phagus and oesophageal
valve passes down the
cylindrical tube formed by
the peritrophic membrane,
and that it is regurgitated
into the outer space by the contractions of the mus-
cular chamber in which the small intestine begins (see
p. 66).

The muscular coat of the stomach consists of two layers,
an internal layer of annular fibres with frequent anasto-
moses, and an external longitudinal layer (fig. 44). A
connective-tissue membrane invests both the inside and
outside of the muscular layer, and is sometimes seen
detached from the underlying epithelium in the meshes
between the muscles \
Peritrophic Tlic proper chitinous lining of the stomodaeum usually

membrane . . "^

of stomach, ccases in insects at the lower end of the oesophagus.
Nevertheless it is not uncommon ^ to find that the stomach

' e. g. wlien the epithelium is macerated in weak alkali.

' Examples have been discovered in all the chief orders of insects (see

Fig. 44. — Muscular coat of stomach
of larva, after immersion in i per cent.
sodic carbonate, showing longitudinal
and transverse fibres^ The basement-
membrane bulges out between the
muscles on the sides.

PeritropJiic Meiiibrane of Stomach 59

also is lined by a cliitiiious tube, wliicli is not usually in
contact with the epithelium. This is the funnel (Trichter)
of Schneider, the peritrophlc memhi'ane of Balbiani. Its
chitinous nature is inferred from its resistance to alkalis.
It invests the food, and may be a provision for keeping-
rough particles from abrading the delicate epithelium.
At times of moult, and in some Myriopods and Crustacea
at all times, the peritrophic membrane breaks off, and
passes out of the stomach with the faeces, which are thus
enclosed in a kind of bag. In the Chironomus-larva it
can at times be seen to begin exactly where the mesen-
teron begins ; sometimes its fore edge is included in the
first fold of the epithelium of the mesenteron (fig. 48). The
peritrophic membrane has been found in nearly every
]3ipterous larva examined ; Dicranota is an exception.
It occurs also in many insects of other orders.

AVe have not been able to obtain entirely satisfactory
evidence of the actual formation of the peritrophic
membrane in Chironomus. In the larva of Simulium
there may occasionally be seen a very copious fluid,
coagulable by alcohol, in the cardiac caeca, and investing
the food in the stomach. We have thought it possible
that this may be the peritrophic membrane in a nascent
condition. The membrane may in Chironomus also be
a special secretion of the cardiac caeca, but of this we
have still less evidence. Gehuchten (Ptychoptera),
Cuenot (Orthoptera), besides Plateau and Balbiani
(Chilopoda), agree that the membrane originates in tlie
mesenteron.

The membrane extends throughout the stomach, though
without attachment to its wall, except at its fore end,

Schneider, 1887, p. 95), in some Myriopods, Crustacea iCirrii^eds, Clado-
cera), and Gasteropoda (Limnaeus, Helix, Limax). Refei'ences to the
literature are given by Balbiani, 1890, p. 30 ; Schneider, loc. cit. ; and
Gehuchten, 1890, p. 91.

6o

Tlie Larva of Chironomus

Miss Phil-
lips' ac-
count of
the oeso-
phageal
valve.

and forms a loose inner tube of relatively small diameter
(fig. 39, ]pm) ; sometimes it is thrown into loops or bends
wHicli do not affect tlie stomach itself. Black masses of
food usually occupy the inner tube, and distinguish it
from the surrounding cavity of the stomach. At the
beginning of the small intestine the chitinous intima of
the proctodaeum begins, and a little beyond this place
the peritrophic membrane thins out and ceases. If the
alimentary canal is removed from a fresh larva, and
divided at the junction of the stomach and small intes-
tine, the muscular and epithelial coats above the section
contract, while the chitinous tube lies passive, and soon
protrudes considerably from the cut end. This gives
a ready proof of the want of adhesion between the mem-
brane and the surrounding epithelium ^.

At our request. Miss Dorothy Phillips, a student of the
Yorkshire College, has investigated more fully the struc-
ture of the oesophageal valve and peritrophic membrane,
and furnishes us with the following account, as well as
with sketches for the accompanying illustrations : —

' The oesophageal valve of the Chironomus-larva is
a complicated structure, and will be better understood
when compared with a simpler case. Simulium has been
chosen as a convenient term of comparison,

' The layers of the oesophageal wall of the larva of
Simulium and Chironomus, in order from within, are as
follows ; —

' Vignon (1899) has published a preliminary note on the histology of
the alimentary canal of the Chironomus-larva, in which he. •^tates(I) that the
cavities or transparent spaces beneath tlie striated hem of the cells of
the gastric epithelium are not visible in the living larva, and are due to
pressure or the action of reagents ; (2) that the peritropliic membrane is
secreted in the neighbourhood of the gastric caeca, and gradually pushed
downwards by the i^ressure of tlie food extruded from the oesophagus ; he
describes certain details, for which wo must await the fuller account to be
published in Arch, de Zool. exper. ; (3) that vibratile cilia occur in the
stomach and beginning of the intestine.

Oesophageal Valve

6i

' I. The chitinous iritima, secreted by

' 2. Tlie epithelium.

' 3. A muscular
layer, of wliich the
circular muscles form
the principal part.

' The oesophagus is
contiiiuetl into the
cardiac chamber as
an inner tube, whose
wall becomes abruptly
reflected, and passes
upwards again, to
the point where the
epithelium of the sto-
mach begins. There
is thus an upper and
a lower hend in the
tube. The part of
the oesophagus which
is doubled into the
cardiac chamber is
called the oesopha-
geal valve.

' We will now do-
scribe, in more detail,
the oesophageal valve
of the Simulium -
larva (fig. 45). In
the reflected wall,
i. e. the part between
the upper and Ipwer
bends, the layers
behave in the following manner : — The intima and
epithelium extend to the upper bend. The epithelial

Fig. 45. — Oesophageal valve of Simiilimn-larva,
one-half of a longitudinal section, in, chitinous
intima. s.ep, stomodaeal epithelium, mj, muscle-
cells, b.s, blood-space, r.s.ep, reflected stomo-
daeal epithelium, r.m, reflected intima. p.m,
peritrophic membrane, tii.ep, mesenteric epi-
thelium.

62

The Larva of Chtronomus

layer decreases in thickness on approaching the upper
bend, and is there bent into a small secondary fold which
projects into the stomach. It then abuts upon the

mesenteric epithelium. The
passage from one epithelium
to the other is abrupt, without
transition. The muscular layer
is not reflected, but ends at
the lower bend.

' Between the oesophageal
wall and its reflected con-
tinuation is a blood- space,
which does not quite reach
the lower bend. It has a
proper wall, in the form of a
thin membrane, and is crossed
by a number of oblique con-
nective tissue-fibres (fig. 45).

' In the larva of Chironomus
(fig. 47) the layers of the wall
of the oesophagus, in order
from within, are as follows : —
' I. The cMtlnous infima,
thrown into deep, longitudinal
folds ; and secreted by

'2. The epitlieUallayei', wh.ic\i
is thin, and consists of a single
layer of cells. This kyer is
generally inconspicuous and
sometimes becomes much at-
tenuated, probably after it has
performed its function of
secreting the chitinous layers.
' 3. The basement- memhrane is a thin and apjiarently
chitinous layer which lies close to the epithelium, by

Fig. 46. — TJie same parts as in
fig. 45 The blood-space is now
contracted.

Oesophageal Valve

63

which it is secreted ; it is also closely applied to the
muscular layer. Like the generating epithelium, it is
thrown into longitudinal folds, which alternate with the
folds of the intima^.

' 4. The muscles, circular and longitudinal. The cir-

FiG. 47.- Diagram of oesophageal valve of Cluronomus-larva. A transverse
and a longitudinal section are here combined, the place of intersection being
marked by a thick line, m.ep, mesenteric epithelium, pm, peritrophic mem-
brane, in', reflected intima. st.ep', reflected stomodaeal epithelium. . 6.s, blood-
space, a.m, annular muscle-cells, step, stomodaeal epithelium, in, chitinous
intima. f.in, longitudinal folds of intima.

cular muscles form the innermost layer, and are large
and conspicuous. At first they are simple, annular

> Weismann has noted the presence of this chitinous layer in tlie
oesophagus of Muscidae, and in the stomach and intestine of Corethra.

64 The Larva of Chirononiiis

miiscle-c-ells, each surrounding the oesophagus, and show-
ing a line of junction on the ventral side, where the ends
of the cell meet ; each cell contains a large nucleus. At
a later stage, the nucleus breaks up, and the whole cell-
substance divides into a number of striated fibres, Ijang
more or less parallel to the original cell. The wall of
each muscle-cell appears in transverse section as a clear,
wavy, fairly distinct line on the superficial side, but
somewhat difficult to determine on the deep side. The
longitudinal muscles of this part of the alimentary canal
are restricted to the neighbourhood of the upper bend ;
they are few, and lie outside the circular muscles,
stretching across the mouth of the blood-space from the
oesophagus to the cardiac wall (figs. 45, 46).

' The oesophageal valve of Chironomus has the same
general arrangement as in Simuliam and many other
insects, but is complicated by secondary folds of the
epithelium and intima, which are the upper and loicer
in te rmedia fe hen ds.

' In the reflected wall of the oesophageal valve the
behaviour of the different layers is difficult to determine;
but it is probably as follows : — ■

' I. The chitlnous intima continues to the upper bond,
where it ends in an uneven edge. At a distance from
the lower bend equal to about one-fifth of the total length
of the valve it becomes abruptly folded inwards and
backwards to the lower bend, thus forming the upper
intermediate bend. Arrived at this point, it is again
sharply reflected upwards (lower intermediate bend), and
lying jiarallel to its former course, passes straight to the
upper bend. Two of the three layers formed by this
repeated folding are closely applied to each other, but
between these and the third is a sj^ace, filled with a clear
coagulable fluid, which is not obliterated even when the
oesophagus is distended with food. This folding of the

Oesophageal Valve 65

intima gives the appearance of a deep chitinous band,
encircling the base of the valve externally, and best seen
in fresh specimens from which the epithelium of the
cardiac chamber has been removed.

' 2. The epithelium is difficult to observe, but it closely
follows the course of the chitinous intima. It consists of
polygonal, nucleated cells, which decrease in size towards
the upper bend. When it is in an inactive condition the
nuclei of the epithelium are relatively very small.

' 3 .It is not clear whether the hasement-memhrane
continues to the upper bend, or, as seems more probable,
disappears in the region of the lower bend.

' 4. The muscular layer is reflected for about half the
length of the valve. The boundaries of the muscle-cells
become faint, and their thickness gradually diminishes as
the reflected layer passes upwards.

' Between the muscular layer and its reflected con-
tinuation is a blood-space similar to that already described
in the Simulium larva. During the passage of large
masses of food along the lower part of the oesophagus
the inner tube may be so greatly distended as to obliterate
the space and squeeze out the blood (fig. 46). A number
of oblique fibres may be seen to pass from the inner
to the reflected muscular layer across the lower half
of the blood- space. These fibres, which are probably of
connective tissue, bind the walls of the fold together, but
so loosely as to admit of considerable relative movement.
It is obvious that fibres passing directly across would be
much shorter, and would restrain the movements within
much narrower limits. The fibres at their inner ends
seem to be attached directly to the walls of the oesopha-
geal muscle-cells, but at their outer extremities they are
attached to a more or less cylindrical layer of connective
tissue, which forms the outer boundary of the blood-space ;
it is generally applied to the surface of the reflected

66 The Larva of Chironomus

muscular layer, but occasionally is seen to be separated
from it. This connective-tissue layer extends upwards
beyond tlie reflected layers in some cases, and passes out
from the blood-space, at the level of the upper bend, into
the body-cavity. Gehuchten (1890) has described a
somewhat similar structure in the oesophageal valve of
Ptychoptera contamhuita. The blood-space, however, in
this case does not appear to communicate freely with the
body- cavity, as in Chironomus ; and it is traversed by
radial membranes, some of which are described as mus-
cular, others as elastic, not simply by connective-tissue
fibres, as in Chironomus.
Miss Phil- ' The whole of the stomach is lined by a distinct
comit of chitinous membrane, the peritrophic membrane of Bal-
trophir biani. It is thinner than the oesophageal intima, and
membrane, ^j^^^^ ^^^ longitudinal folds. A space, filled with fluid
and food-particles, separates it, except at one point, from
the epithelium of the stomach. The one place of attach-
ment is at the beginning of the mesenteric epithelium,
where it comes in contact with the oesophageal epithelium.
' The peritrophic membrane is renewed from time to
time, and is occasionally double throughout. In such
cases the inner tube is evidently the old one, which has
failed to be carried away with the food as usual. The
times of renewal of the membrane have not been ascer-
tained.

' All the facts point to the derivation of the peritrophic
membrane from the epithelium of the stomach, either by
secretion or conversion, but the process has not been
directly observed in Chironomus.'
Small The small intestine begins in a pear-shaped chamber,

which receives the four Malpighian tubules. It may be
seen to contract suddenly from time to time, and then
slowly to dilate. There is some reason to suppose that,
when it contracts, the fluids extracted from the food are

intestine. ■

Colon

67

impelled into the space between the wall of the stomach
and the peritrophic membrane. The rest of the tube is
narrow and uniform. Its wall closely resembles that of
the oesophagus, consisting chiefly of annular muscle-cells,
each enclosing a number of obscurely striated fibres ;
within the muscular coat is a mosaic epithelium.

The colon, or large intestine, begins as a wide tube Colon,
with rather distant bundles of striated, muscular fibres,
all annular. In this part of the colon the epithelial
cells form transverse rows of large nucleated cells lying
between the muscles, and bulging externally (fig. 49).

m.

Fig. 48. — Chamber at be-
ginning of larval intestine.
m, origin of two of tlie Mal-
pighian tubules.

Fig. 49. — Epithelium
and annular muscles of
larval colon.

Lower down, the epithelium becomes thinner and less
distinct, so that the muscular coat constitutes nearly
the whole thickness of the wall. At the same time the
diameter of the tube steadily diminishes. There is no
rectum, or terminal enlargement, and the colon is con-
tinued to the anus, which is situated in the last segment.

The salivary glands of the larva (fig. 50) form a Salivary
pair of thin hollow sacs, situated in the second and
third thoracic segments. Each is slightly curved in

F 2

glands

68

Tlie Larva of Chironomus

conformity with the wall of the body, the concavity
being turned towards the oesophagus, which lies between
them. The lining epithelium is not continuous through-
out, but ceases along the middle of the broad surfaces.
The cells form a single layer, and are of large size, while
the nuclei are enormous, being easily studied with a
quarter-inch objective (fig. 50, 5). Sometimes the cells,
probably in a special phase of activity, are flattish, while
at other times the nuclei, surrounded by a thin coat of

Fig. 50. — Salivary glands of larva, i, position of glands on either side of
oesophagus and dorsal vessel. 2, transverse section of gland, showing the dis-
position of the secreting cells. 3, two epithelial cells. 4, epithelial cells stand-
ing ont into cavity of gland. 5, nucleus of epithelial cells, the last from
Balbiani, 1881.

protoplasm, project into the lumen of the gland, being
connected with the wall only by a slender neck \ Bal-
biani 2 has described the very interesting nuclei of these
glands. They are easily prepared for examination, and
the object is well suited in every way to the young

' The projection of the nuclei of these cells into the cavity of the gland
seems to be an extreme case of what may be noticed elsewhere ; for instance,
in the epithelium of the Malpighian tubules, and sometimes in certain
cells of the epidermis, especially iu those of the anal blood gills. Occasion-
ally small cells have been noticed in the basal portions of the epithelium,
as if for replacement of the existing functional ones.

" 1881, p. 637.

Salivary Glands 69

histologist. A full-grown larva is decapitated on a glass
slip. The glands often float out with the blood ; if this
docs not happen, gentle pressure should be applied. The
tissue may be examined at once, while still bathed in the
blood of the insect, but the finer details cannot be made
out until the glands are stained. The cells do not take
the stain until they are killed, and it is instructive to
note that they remain long unstained in non-poisonous,
aqueous, staining fluids. Strong alcohol or osmic acid
(the latter is preferable) hills the cells, and then the stain
penetrates. The following procedure will be found to
answer well : — Immerse a gland momentarily in a mixture
of equal parts of 1/^ solutions of osmic and acetic acids,
wash in distilled water, stain with acetized methyl green,
followed by carmine, and mount in glycerine. The
nuclei vary much in shape, being circular, oval, club-
shaped, &c. Sometimes they send out radiating projec-
tions into the cell-protoplasm. They slowly change their
figure. Each nucleus contains one or two nucleoli,
besides a long convoluted, transversely striated cord.
The ends of the cord are attached to the nucleolus (one
to each,- if there are two nucleoli). The transverse
striation of the cord suggests that it is composed of a
number of component disks, which are sometimes seen
separated into small groups in a broken-up nucleus.
Korschelt ^ believes, however, that the striation is due to
infolding of the surface. He considers that Balbiani's
figure is too regular. The nucleoli diifer much in shape,
being cup-shaped, oval, lobed, &c. They do not stain
with acetized methyl green, though they readily take a
carmine stain. The cord stains with methyl green, but
very feebly with carmine.

Similar nuclei have been found in the Malpighian
tubules, as well as in the epithelium of the stomach and

' Zool. ^w,?.,vii, pp. 189. 221.241 (1884).

70

The Larva of Chironomiis

colon ; they Lave also been found in young embryos of
Hydrophilus ^ and in plants (endosperm of Fritillaria,
&c.). The physiological meaning of the structures has
not been elucidated.

The salivary fluid is used in the form of silken threads
to weave together the vegetable or earthy particles of
which the wall of the burrow is composed. We have no
reason to attribute to it any digestive property, and its
rapid coagulation on contact with water renders it hard
to suppose that it can act upon food which is necessaril}'-
mixed with water.

The salivary ducts pass off from the inner or concave

sides of the glands. They
have a ringed (' pseudo-
tracheal ') structure, like
that of insect air-tubes.
They pass forwards to the
tubule ofT^fvf^''^"'^ """' "*' *^'^'i''^^"^'" head, and enter the iloor

of the mouth beneath the
lingua (fig. 19, sd). The common duct is extremely short.

Ganin '^ and Bugnion •'' find that in Hymenoptera the
salivary glands are developed independently of the
alimentary canal from a special ectodermal invagination.
Carriere (1897), adopting the earlier suggestions of
Biitschli and Grassi, derives them from the prothoracic
spiracles, which, he says, in Hymenoptera open at first
inside the second maxillae, and become approximated
and at length fused as the maxillae unite to form the
labium.

Maipighian There are four long Alalpiyhian tubules, which enter
the dilated beginning of the small intestine. They are
lined by an epithelium of flatfish cells with large

^ Carnoy. 1885.

^ ' Ueb. d. Embiyoiialhiitte dtu- Ilymenoptereu u. Lepidopteren-
Embryonen.' Petersb. Acad. Sti., xiv (i87o\

' *Anat. et moeui-i de I'Encyrtus fuscicollis.' Fee. Zool. Suisse, torn, v,
p. 454 (1891).

Dorsal Vessel

71

nuclei, wliicli often project into the lumen of tlie tubule

(%• 51)-

The muscular wall of Deveiop-

, , , . , 1 . meiit of

the alimentary canal is striped

11 'Jii ,^ ,1 muscular

well suited to the study fibres,
of the development of
striped muscular fibres
from simple muscle-
cells. AYe have made
some progress with the
investigation, but found
it necessary to leave this
and many other special
features incomplete, in
order to bring our work
to a close in moderate
time. The valuable
Recherches of Viallanes
(1882) would be a useful
guide to any one who
might be disposed to
pursue the inquiry.

5. The Heart and
Circulation.

"When a live larva is Dorsal

vessel.

examined under the
microscope, the dorsal
vessel is easily seen on
the bach of the hinder
part of the body (fig. 39).
In Dipterous larvae the
parts — the heart, which
runs forwards from the

Fio. 52. — Muscle-cells of larval alimentary
canal, i, optical sections of fresh oesopha-
geal muscle-cells, showing differentiation of
contractile substance. The same appearance
occurs in the intestinal muscle-cells ; some-
times it cannot be found. 2, striated con-
tractile substance and nuclei of muscle-cells
of oesophagus. 3, muscle-cells of intestine,
examined in blood of larva. 4, the same,
after the addition of acetic acid.

dorsal vessel is divisible into two
is posterior, and the aorta, which

72

The Larva of Chironomus

lieart. lu a larva of one of the larger species of Chiro-
nomus the heart lies in the eleventh post-cephalic
segment, and forms a single chamber with a muscular
and rhythmically contractile wall. A pericardium can
be seen in transverse sections which pass through the
hinder part of the heart ; elsewhere it is deficient. Two
pairs of ost'ia or lateral inlets, of which the hinder pair
are the larger, lead from the pericardium or from the
body-cavity into the heart. The aorta leads from the

Fig. 5.^ — Heart of larva, ventral
view, showing muscles (w) and con-
nective-tissue fibres, which hold it in
its place {ct.f).

Fig. 54. — Heart of larva,
dorsal view, showing ostia
and muscles of wall.

heart to the head, lying above the alimentary canal. It
passes beneath the commissure of the supra-oesophageal
ganglia, and becomes enlarged further forward. A pair
of rather large aortic valves guard the passage from the
heart to the aorta ; in front of these neither valves nor
ostia are to be found, at least in young larvae. We have
several times observed small bodies, which may be
ganglia, set alternately on opposite sides of the aorta.

Muscles of the Heart 73

The aorta ends in the head by a trumpet-shaped orifice,
and here the blood escapes into the body-cavity.

In the living larva the energetic contractions of the
heart are seen to drive the blood along the aorta, and the
pulse can be followed by the eye as far as to the fore end
of the stomach. The blood with its corpuscles can be
seen to stream into the ostia during the dilatation of the
heart.

The muscles of the heaif, when seen from above, are Muscles

-.- . . , - of heart.

transverse, except behind the posterior ostia, where they
radiate, and become nearly longitudinal (fig. 54). They
do not extend completely across the heart, but thin away
toAvards the middle line. On the ventral side the muscles
have a radiate disposition ; many of them converge
towards a median space just in front of the posterior
ostia ; none extend completely across. A high power
shows that all the muscles of the heart are striated.

The valves at the beginning of the aorta resemble Aorti.-

111-1 valves.

triangular pockets, and when seen irom the dorsal side
their pointed tips seem to meet in a point ; a side view
shows that this is not really the case ; the tips are
separate, and attached to the wall of the aorta by bundles
of fibres, rather like the tendinous cords of the mam-
malian auriculo- ventricular valves \

Six pairs of segmentally arranged alary muscles (so Alary
called because they form, as it were, the wings of the
heart) are found in the abdomen (fig. 55). As a rule, they
spring from the junctions of the segments on the sides of
the abdomen : from each junction a muscle passes forAvards
and another backwards -. Each muscle expands at its
insertion into a triangular fibrous sheet, with numerous

' Jiiworowski, 1879.

^ Tho muscle in front of a junction and that behind would together
correspond with one alary muscle of a more primitive insect. i^Cf. Miall
and Denny, 1866, p. 135, fig. 75.)

74

The Larva of Chivonomiis

Devel.>r-
inent of
tlie dorsal

vessel.

meshes, wliich apjDears to be attached to the ventral side
of the heart ; a large multinucleate pericardial cell,
elongated in the direction of the dorsal vessel, overlies
each of these expansions. There are also small pericardial
cells, which are attached to the upper surface of the same
alary tendons singly or in clusters. They are uninucleate,
and contain oil-drops, as well as minute brownish concre-
tions, probably fatty (Wielowiejski). Kowalewsky has
discovered indications that the pericardial cells perform
an excretory function. They eliminate carminate of
ammonia, and have an acid reaction. A very small cell

cam.

Fig. 55. — Part of dorsal vessel of larva, with pericardial cells
and alary muscles of one segment, am, alary muscles.
i>c, pericardial cell, n, nucleus.

or nucleus (perhaps a nerve-cell) is found near the middle
of each alary muscle. The aorta is held in place by
a great number of very fine threads which pass to its
dorsal side from the body-wall.

The stomato-gastric nerves of the aorta are described
on p. 48.

All Chironomus-larvae do not exhibit the same structure
of the dorsal vessel, and the variations cannot be fully
understood without some knowledge of the development
of the organ. We learn from Jaworowski (1879) ^^^
G-raber that the heart of an insect (Pj^rrhocoris) may
during embryonic development take the form of a nearly

Two Types of Dorsal Vessel 75

uniform tube, encircled by innumerable and close -set
muscle-cells. The cells are usually deficient above and
below, or united by non-muscular substance, so that they
do not form complete circles about the dorsal vessel, but
pairs of semicircles. The hinder part of such a tube may
afterwards enlarge and form a heart, whose simple
muscle-cells are often replaced by strands of striated
muscle, as in the larger Chironomus-larvae. In the rest
of the tube a great increase of length takes place with-
out increase or even with considerable diminution in
the number of the muscle-cells, which therefore become
widely spaced. Certain of the muscle-cells become much
enlarged, and send out nucleated projections into the
cavity of the dorsal vessel. A pair of such projections, or
in particular cases a single projection, forms a simple
cellular valve, which, when the muscle contracts, prevents
the passage of the blood. Such cellular valves are nearly
always opposite, but in the dorsal vessel, or some part of
it, of the larvae of Corethra, Ptychoptera, and Calliphora,
they are not opposite, but alternate ; in the Corethra-
larva (where they are found only in the last chamber)
they seem to be multicellular, but are not really so.
Between two pairs of cellular valves, ostia, or inlets
for the blood, may form; these too are specially associated
with muscle-cells, and nuclei are often visible, one just in
front and another just behind the inlet. The cellular
valves and ostia often show something of a segmental
arrangement, which is however usually effaced in the
aorta and may disappear altogether.

In Dipterous larvae two types of dorsal vessel have Two types
been described. In the first type, which is by far the vessel.
commonest, both in Diptera and in insects generally,
there is no important difference of structure between the
heart and the rest of the abdominal dorsal vessel, which
is cantractile throughout, and provided with several pairs
of inlets ; of the many pairs of muscle-cells one pair here
and there becomes enlarged, and forms cellular valves,
whose free surface is often lobed ; these cellular valves
are intermediate between the inlets, and generally nearer
to the one behind than to the one in front. There may
be no enlargement of the hinder part of the dorsal vessel,
and striated muscle-fibres are not found ; aortic valves
may be present or absent \

' Jaworowski says that in Dipterous larvae which exhibit this type of

76

The Larva of Chironomus

The larva of Tanypus exemplifies this type, as also do
certain unnamed Chironomus-larvae.

The second type of dorsal vessel is found in the larva
of Chironomus dorsal is. Here the heart and aorta are
clearly differentiated, the heart being much the wider of
the two ; it is furnished with two pairs of valvular inlets,
and its muscles, while still retaining something of the origi-
nal semicircular arrangement, form bundles of striated
fibres. The aorta has no muscle-cells, inlets, or valves,
except the pair at its base (which properly belong to the
heart) ; its wall, though very elastic, is not contractile.

In a dorsal vessel of the first type the valves are usually
of very simple structure, and arise by modification of the
muscle-cells ; where inlets form, the adjacent muscle-cells
do not altogether lose their original character ; the more
complex aortic valves may be absent altogether. In the
other type the simple cellular valves almost or altogether
disappear, aortic valves of complex structure are found,
and the inlets themselves become valvular. Graber ^ has
described and figured the appearance which the posterior
inlets present, during contraction, in a Chironomus -larva
of this kind. The muscular bands adjacent to the inlet,
in which nuclei can often be distinguished, appear to
cross one another and to unite where they cross, forming
a figure-of-eight. During contraction, they appear to
close the vessel and the inlets by one operation. All the
valves found in the heart of any Chironomus, whether
cellular, ostial, or aortic, appear to be derived from the
semicircular muscle-cells.

Sections
of dorsal
vessel.

Course of
blood.

Thin sections through the heart of a Chironomus-larva
show that there is an outer fibrous layer, an intermediate
space in which the muscle-cells lie, and an inner mem-
brane or endocardium.

The blood passes from the heart to the aorta, and so to
the head, where it escapes into the body- cavity, bathing
all the viscera contained therein. A small portion of the
blood is distributed to the respiratory tubules, and

dor.-al Vessel the heart does not extend backwards into the eleventh post-
cephalic segment.

' 'Propulsat. Apparat d. Insekten.' tiitsb. rf. A". Akad. Wien, 1872, fig. 7 ;
•Javvorowski, 1879, ^S^- 24. 25.

Blood of Larva 77

becomes aerated in them ; the return-current during
diastole passes by the ostia into the heart again.

The red colour of the larvae of some species of Chiro- Biood <.f
nomus has long been familiar. It must be due to some-
thing contained in the blood, for when a larva is cut open
and gently squeezed, the body- wall and alimentary canal
become pale, while the escaping fluid, if collected in fair
quantity, for which a number of larvae must be sacrificed,
is of a lively red. The colouring matter is dissolved in
the fluid or plasma of the blood, and is not restricted to
the corpuscles, as in vertebrates. A point of special
interest is that the colouring matter is haemoglobin, the
same substance which gives a red colour to the blood of
man and other vertebrates. This was first shown by
Eollett (1861). He collected the blood of Chironomus-
larvae in quantity, and obtained from it crystals of
haemoglobin ; he also showed that it is dichroic, the light
which lias traversed a sufficiently thick stratum being-
red, while tliat which has jDassed through a very thin
layer is green \ Briicke had shortly before (1853) shown
that the venous blood of the frog is also dichroic. In 1867
Lankester ^ showed that the blood of Chironomus-larvae
gives the characteristic absorption-spectrum of haemo-
globin. It is a striking fact that haemoglobin should occur
in a number of animals which are not closely related to
one another. This peculiar respiratory pigment occurs in
very nearl^^ all vertebrates, as well as in the following
invertebrates : — a small planarian, found at Suez by the
late H. N. Moseley, some nemertines (where it is often
specially associated with the nervous system, but may be
found in red corpuscles), some leeches, many chaetopod

' Attention to this dicliroic property of the blood is necessary to avoid
drawing wrong conclusions fi"om the colours seen in the different tissues
of Chironomus-larvae.

^ Journ. Anat. and Phys., ii, p. 114 (1867).

78 The Larva of Chi'ronomus

worms (such as the earthworm, Tubifex, Nais, Capitella
capiiafa, in corpuscles, Terebella, Arenicola, &c.), gephy-
reans, crustaceans (among others Daphnia and Chiro-
cephahis), the burrowing bivalve mollusk, Solen legu-
men, Planorh'is corneiis, Limnaeus, Paludina, Littorina,
Aplysia, Patella, and Chiton. It seems to be absent
only from the larval Muraenoids among vertebrate
animals. Lankester ^ long ago remarked that haemo-
globin occurs where increased facilities for oxidation are
required, as by burrowing animals and inhabitants of
stagnant pools, especially such as lurk in foul mud. It
also occurs in animals which are particularly active, and
in tissues which are frequently exercised (voluntary
muscles of vertebrates, jaw-muscles of snails, &c.). It is
well develo23ed also in large thick-skinned animals with
limited respiratory surface (vertebrates). Pelagic animals,
which are of soft texture, usually of small size, and there-
fore with a relatively large surface, and which need above
all things trans23arency so that they may escape the
notice of their enemies, are nearly always i]l-suj)plied
with haemoglobin, or more commonly want it altogether.
Certain Chironomus-larvae and various closely allied
Dipterous larvae have no haemoglobin, and it is to be
observed that these usually haunt the surface of the
water, or at least do not bury themselves in mud.
Thus the surface-feeding gnat-larva, and the phantom-
larva (Corethra), which j^oises itself in the middle depths
of clear water, have no haemoglobin. "We cannot, how-
ever, explain on these or any other principles all the
cases of presence or absence of haemoglobin in particular
animals. We cannot tell, for instance, why caddis-worms
or the larva of Dicranota, living in the same streams as
red Chironomus-larvae, and leading a very similar life,
should have no respiratory pigment at all.

' 1873, p. 9.

Changes in Dorsal Vessel 79

In the larger animals haemoglobin is chiefly important
as a means of carrying oxygen from one part of the body
"to another ; in the Chironomus-larva it seems to be rather
employed as a means of storing the oxygen. In either
case its usefulness depends upon its power of forming
a very loose combination with oxygen, which it takes
up easily, and easily parts with. Almost any reducing
solution, a stream of hydrogen or some other indifferent
gas, or diminished pressure, suffices to liberate much
oxygen from its temporary combination with haemo-
globin. Even in its crystalline form it gives oft' oxygen
readily, changing colour like the blood itself, and becom-
ing dichroic.

Either the storage capacity for oxygen of the Chiro-
nomus-larva is considerable, or the oxygen must be used
very economically, for the animal can subsist long with-
out a fresh supply. One of us took a flask of distilled
water, boiled it for three-quarters of an hour, closed it
tight with an india-rubber bung, and left it to cool.
Then six larvae were introduced, the small space above
the water being at the same time filled up with carbonic
acid. The bung was replaced, and the larvae were
watched from day to day. Four of them survived for
forty-eight hours, and one till the fifth day, two of them
meanwhile changing to pupae. Nevertheless the water
was from the first exhausted of oxygen, or very nearly so.

Dareste (1873) observes that in the pupa of Chironomus ciianges in
the dorsal vessel becomes contractile throughout, and vessel,
divided into chambers by valves. We can confirm this
statement, having found that in the abdomen of the pupa
and late larva the dorsal vessel is provided with several
pairs of opposite valves and ostia. The chambers contract
in succession from behind forwards.

Following a suggestion made by Dareste, we may
point out that the larval heart of CMronomus dorsalis is

8o The Larva of Chironomus

suited to a state of things in which the functional respira-
tory organs are limited to the hinder end of the body. But
when, in the course of post-embryonic development, the
insect acquires an extensive tracheal system, segmentally
repeated, the circulatory apparatus becomes repeated
too, and many segments are provided with contractile
chambers.

6. OyganH of Respiration.

[a) THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM.

Traciieai TliG oxAj mcaus which the Chironomus-larva is known

to employ for renewing its supply of oxygen is wriggling

Fm. ^6. — Tracheal system of larva, in side view. The head and thoracic
segments are included. Two tracheal systems, with communicating branches,
and two closed spiracles at the extremities of initial branches, are seen.

about in the comparatively well-aerated water near the
surface of the stream. Owing to the circumstance that
this exercise is usually taken by night, we have no
detailed information as to its frequency or duration. The
few observations which we have ourselves made only
show that larvae kept in a deep tank with a sediment of
mud and decaying leaves are frequently seen to rise to
the top, nearly always by night.

The larva has only a rudimentary tracheal system,
which appears late in the larval stage (fig. 56). In Chiro-

Tracheal System 8i

nomus dorsalis there are two pairs of segmental tracheal
systems in the thorax, of which the fore pair are much
the larger. The segmental systems appear first in or
close to the intersegmental boundaries, between the pro-
and mesothorax, and again between the meso- and meta-
thorax. At first they are independent of one another,
but in the end they become slightly connected by longi-
tudinal vessels. A very slender lateral or initial tube
passes from each segmental system to the integument,
but the spiracles are closed. The tracheae, with the
exception of the initial tubes, are filled with air ^. Each
of the four initial tubes is plugged with dark chitinous
deposit at the point where it reaches the skin ; at these
points the old tracheae are withdrawn during a moult as
separate bunches, the slender longitudinal vessels being
broken across.

No insect is known to us which has more completely
departed from the habits and structure of an air-breath-
ing animal. Yet even here we find visible proof of
descent from a terrestrial insect with branching air-tubes.

It is noteworthy that these larvae can live at very great
depths, where it is impossible for them to rise to the
surface (see p. 3).

The account just given holds good of the blood-worms,
which we have more particularly studied, but not of all
larvae of the genus Chironomus, some of which have
well-developed longitudinal tracheae.

Terrestrial Nemoceran larvae may have numerous Tracheal
spiracles disposed along the sides of the body ; such ^J^^l^^ ^^
larvae are peripnetistic -. Bibionidae, Cecidomyidae, and Nemoceran
Myceto^^hilidae furnish many examples. The larva of ■^^'^^'*'^*

* Forel (' Materiaux jiour servir a I'etude de la faune profonde du Leman,
Bull. Soc. Vm(d. de Sci. Nat, 1874, p. 57) says that Cliironomus-larvae brought
up from great depths in the Lake of Geneva always had the tx'acheae
devoid of air.

= Haliday, 1857, p. 179.

MIALL. Gr

82 The Larva of Chironomiis

Mycetobia, however, is not peripneustic, but ampM-
pneastic, having the middle spiracles closed, and only the
prothoracic and terminal spiracles open. The larvae of
Rhyphns, some Tipulidae, and some Psychodidae are also
amphipneustic. Most Culicidae and Tipulidae, besides
the aberrant genus Dixa, are metapneustic, with spiracles
at the hinder end only. This gradual reduction in the
number of open spiracles is no doubt due to increasing-
obstruction by water or earth.

As in other insects, initial tubes are usual in Nemoceran
larvae ; they lead inwards from the spiracles, one branch
to each spiracle. The initial branches subdivide in-
ternally, forming local systems in each segment. The
Chironomus-larva does not advance beyond this stage
(we are speaking of the bottom-feeding species), and its
imperfect tracheal apparatus consists at most of three
thoracic segmental systems of very small extent. The
local systems may be connected in a rather later stage
by longitudinal trunks, from which branches to the vis-
cera, body -wall, and limbs are given off. In the larva of
Mochlonyx ^ the boundaries of the segmental systems
of the abdomen are still marked by thin septa, which
stretch across the longitudinal trunks.

In many Chironomidae, as well as in Corethra, Simu-
lium, and Blepharocera, the tracheal system no longer
opens at the surface of the body. The initial tubes
become impervious, and may perhaps disappear alto-
gether in some forms. The longitudinal trunks are
usually retained in those larvae which have once acquired
them, but in Corethra they subsequently become obli-
terated, two pairs of dilatations only persisting as
hydrostatic vesicles.

Nemoceran larvae commonly bear the posterior spi-
racles on the eleventh segment, whether this is the last,
as in Phalacrocera and Pericoma, or the last but one, as
in Culex and Mochlonyx. In Dicranota and Ptychoptera,
however, it is the twelfth segment which bears the
spiracles.

The spiracles are usually flush with the general surface
of the body, but may be sunk a little, as in Dixa, where
a respiratory cup is formed, like that of some aquatic
Coleopterous larvae (H^^drobius). In the Culex- and
Mochlonyx-larvae, on the contrary, the spiracles are

1 Meinert, 1886, p. 60 (428).

Blood-gills 83

elevated upon a long dorsal stalk, an outgrowtli from tlie
eleventh or penultimate segment. The aquatic larva of
a Muscid, Ephydra, has two separate tubes, each fringed
at its extremity by a circle of setae. In the larvae of
Ptychoptera and Bittacomorpha the twelfth segment is
very long, slender, and retractile, and the minute spiracles
open at its extremity.

(&) THE BEANCHIAL SYSTEM.

Insect larvae which live immersed in water often Biood-giiis.
develop gills, which are thin, transparent extensions of
the body-wall, filled with blood, and employed for
respiration. According' as they contain tracheae or not,
they may be distinguished as tracheal gills ov Mood-gills^.
They have in general little morphological constancy, and
vary much in position and number, as well as in minute
structure. It is remarkable that functional gills are
veiy rarely found in an adult insect, however aquatic
its propensities (Packard, 1898, p. 476).

The larger species of Chironomus-larvae, such as C.
dorsalis and C. plumosus, are furnished with two kinds
of blood-gills, but tracheal gills are entirely absent. Two
pairs of blood-gills are borne upon the lower surface of
the last segment but one (fig. i). These are long and
flexible, but incapable of independent movement. From
the last segment and close to the anus, two pairs of much
shorter blood-gills project (fig. i). We find, therefore,
two pairs of ventral, and two pairs of anal blood-gills.
The hinder end of the body, when the larva is not actually
feeding, is often seen to be thrust out from the burrow.
When the larva is completely concealed and apparently
at rest, it keeps up a vertical undulatory movement of
its body within the burrow, which continually renews

' This distinction, though often convenient, is not strictly .applicable to
everj' known case. There are gills whicli are neither tracheal gills nor
blood-gills.

G 2

84 The Larva of Chirouomus

tlie water. The larva lias another mode of charging
its blood with oxygen. It frequently comes up to the
surface by night, and though it does not actually reach
the air, it bathes its body in well-aerated water. The
blood-gills no doubt effect an exchange of gases, giving
off carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen. The only
visible action which can be detected by the microscope is
the in-and-out pulsation of the blood, driven to the gills
by the heart.

Bionci-<?ins Blood-gills are not usual even in aquatic Nemoceran

of other larvae. The ventral tubules described above seem to be

larvae?^'^'^^^ peculiar to Chijonomus. The larvae of Culex, Anopheles,

Corethra, Mochlonyx, Tanypus, and others have four anal

gills ; the Simulium-larva has only three, which are

retractile into the rectum. In the Dicranota-larva the

anal gills are articulated and traversed by tracheae. The

larvae of Eristalis and Helophilus, which are not Nemo-

ceran, have about twenty long retractile anal gills, which

are retractile into the rectum and traversed by tracheae.

Such examples render it probable that the blood-gills of

one larva may be replaced by tracheal gills in another

larva ^

Tracheal The Cliironomus-larva has no tracheal gills, but they

gills (.t ^j.g common in other aquatic Nemoceran larvae. They

larvae. occur in a variety of positions ; thus they may be ventral,

like the two pairs of articulated appendages on the last

segment of the Dicranota-larva; caudal (i.e. terminating

the body), like the last pair of the same larva - ; lastly,

they may be segmental (i.e. segmentall3^ repeated), as in

the larvae of Phalacrocera and Blepharocera '■''. Other

variations probably exist, but full and exact descriptions

are not always to be met with.

The tracheal gills of Nemoceran larvae seem to be
derived in some cases, but not in all, from a set of circum-
sjJtracular papillae, which surround the s|)iracles, and

^ The larva of Pleetrocnemia (Trichoptera) has five retractile anal gills
(T. H. Taylor in Miall, 1895, p. 266).

^ The tracheal gills of the larvae of Ptychoptera and Bittacomorpha
seem to be similarly placed, though the long, retractile, respiratory tube
is continued beyond them.

'' Cf. the larvae of Paraponyx, Sialis, and Trichoj^tera.

Muscles of Body-zvall

85

terminate the body in certain Tipnla- larvae. In other
hxrvae they are often reduced, and instead of being dorsal,
lateral, and ventral, one pair only may be retained. The
dorsal circumspiracular papillae may be two, four, or six
in number ^. One pair of these become large and fringed
with long setae in the aquatic larva of Pericoma, and
enclose the bubble of air which buoys up the taiP. In
the Dicranota- larva only the ventral pair are retained ;
these become long and apparently respiratory ^. Aquatic
Nemoceran larvae which have no open spiracles, such as
Chironomus, Tanypus, and Simulium, seem always to
want the circumspiracular papillae.

Fig. S'- — Histology of larval muscles, i, subcutaneous larval muscle, showing
contractile columns (to left), and protoplasm with nuclei (to right). X 200.
2, transverse section of ditto, showing muscle-fibres enclosed in protoplasm.
X 125. 3, muscle-fibres, from body- wall, x 800. 4, ditto, from head. X8oo.

7. The Bod //-wall, Blood-space, and Fatty Tissues.
The muscles of the body- wall, of the prothoracic and Muscles of

"^ . , body-wall.

anal feet, and of the head, are shown in figs. 19, 20, 30-36.
The muscles of the head and thorax are very different
in arrangement from those of the fiy, and are completely
renewed during the transformation.

1 Osten Sacken, 1869, p. 7. In tlie blow-fly larva twelve small papillae
are found in the same situation.

^ Miall and Walker, 1895. ' Miall, 1893.

tissues.

86 The Larva of Chironornus

All the larger muscles of the larva are enclosed in
connective -tissue sheaths, which become conspicuous,
and sometimes perplex an inexperienced observer, when
the muscles shrink, as they do a little while before
pupation. This retraction of the muscles from their
sheaths is particularly evident in the head of a late larva.
Blood- The space between the body-wall and the viscera is

fat,ty occui^ied by a large blood- sinus, which takes the place

of a coelom or true body-cavity. In this space are
lodged two fatty layers, inner and outer, which answer
to the simpler fat-bod}^ of many other insects. As is
usually the case, the fatty layers grow steadily through-
out the larval stage, but are largely absorbed during the
transformation. The outer faify layer lies in the body-
wall, partly without and partly within the muscles.
It is segmentally arranged, being completely interrupted
at the junctions of the segments. It consists of a network
of lobes or strings, most of which take a longitudinal
direction. The lobes may be thick, with relatively small,
oval fsnestrae between, or thin, with relatively large
fenestrae, or mere threads stretching in various direc-
tions across open spaces in which single cells or groups
of cells are disposed. The cells are enclosed in a thin
membrane, and the threads are apparently drawn-out
portions of the membrane onl}^ The clusters of large
oenocytes (see p. 40) are placed in oval fenestrae exca-
vated in this layer. In young larvae the outer layer
consists of a dense mass of cells, each with a central
nucleus, surrounded by closely packed granules ^. In
a later stage oil-drops become plentiful, and gradually
occupy more and more of the space within the cell ". By

' According to Wielowiejski, 1886, p. 514, these granules are more or
less soluble in acids and in alcohol.

^ The fat-body in insects generally contains not only fat but proteid sub-
stances ; it sinks in water (^Bugnion, Anat et maws de V Encyrtus fuscicollis,
p. 464)

Connective Tissue deficient

87

clearing and staining, the nucleus, the parietal pro-
toplasm, and the very numerous polygonal granules can
be defined. In the larvae of some species of Chironomus
the granules have a grass-green colour, which persists in
the pupa and in the newly emerged fly. In the larva of
C dorsalis such granules occur in smaller proportion.
The hmer layer surrounds the alimentary canal, and has
no segmental divisions. It is continuous from the hinder
part of the thorax, or the beginning of the abdomen, to
the ninth segment behind the head, ending opposite the
reproductive bodies. Like the outer layer, it is composed
of cells, packed into
irregular lobes or
strings, which show
bulges and constric-
tions, with many
cross-connexions. De-
tached cells and little
groups of cells are
also found. In older
larvae the cells be-
come charged with
oil-drops and gra-
nules. Nuclei are
easily demonstrated by clearing and staining; like the
containing cells, they are larger than in the outer layer.
The inner layer forms earlier than the outer, and is
conspicuous in the embryo.

The trabecular connective tissue, which in most insects Connective

tissue and

invests the viscera, binds them together, and connects tracheal
them with the body-wall, is very poorly developed in the deficient.
Chironomus-larva, and seldom attracts the attention of
the anatomist. The paucity of tracheal tubes further
contributes to the lax and mobile condition of the organs
in the body-cavity.

Fig. 58. — Inner fatty la.yer, from living
larva. The fat-drops arc shaded. Tree cells
take a spherical shape.

CHAPTER III

THE FLY OF CHIRONOMUS

Order of The larva of Cliironomus, as of other metamorpliic
tion. insects, is succeeded by a pupa, and this by a winged

imago. It would therefore be natural to describe the
pupa immediately after the larva. "We do not, however,
propose to follow that course here. The pupa of Chiro-
nomus is hardly more than the fly enclosed in a temporary
skin, and the details of its structure cannot be understood
without constant reference to the structure of the fly.
It is necessary to know at least the general structure
of the fly, in order to follow the changes which take
place during the last larval stage.

The general appearance and habits of the fly have
been shortly described on p. 9. See Plate.
Head. The head is small, and flattened from before backwards

(fig. 59). The lunate compound eyes occupy the sides,
and almost meet above the antennary bulbs. From the
lower or anterior part of the head projects a rostrum^
on which the mouth-parts are carried. A narrow neck
joins the head to the thorax.

When we compare the head of the Chironomus-fly
with that of a more primitive insect, such as a cockroach,
we see that the lateral lobes, which bear the compound
eyes and antennae, have in Chironomus greatly encroached
upon the median lobe, almost effacing the broad shield

Chitinoits Tunnels of Head

89

(clypeus), which is prominent in the larva, as in most
insects. The small part of the clypeus which remains is
seen as a narrow transverse plate, separated by a suture
from the epistome or anterior clypeus, which carries the
small triangular labrum (fig. 59).

On each side of the suture between the clypeus and the Glutinous

tmmels

epistome is a rounded orifice, which leads into the interior of head.

Fig. 59.— Head of male fl.v of C'hinmomus dorsaUs, front view. The
antennae are removed, with the exception of the large second joint (b)
which shows the place of attachment of the shaft, v.p, jsrocesses on the
vertex, s, transverse suture, o.r, orifice of chitinous cephalic cavity.
e, epistome. Ir, labnim. I, labella. mx.p, maxiUary pulp.

of the head, dilating there into an irregular cavity, which
extends to the back of the head. The head is therefore
tunnelled through by a pair of cavities, whose walls are
stiffened by chitin, and are morphologically part of the
external surface (fig. 60). Muscles are seen in our sections,
which seem to pass from the tunnels to the bases of the

90

The Fly of Chironomiis

Fig. 6o. — Details of imaginal head, i, dis-
section to show the chitinous tunnels
(cc) behind tlie epistome. 2, posterior end
of one of tlie tunnels, with slit-like opening.
3, extremity of labium. 4, extremity of
ling^ua. 5, one of the processes on the
vertex.

antennae. In many in-
sects there occurs in a
somewliat similar situa-
tion a tentorium, or in-
ternal skeleton for mus-
cular attachment, which
splits into halves at each
ecdysis, and, according to
Palmen's observations on
Ephemera, is renewed
from paired rudiments.
Other writers ^ have traced
the tentorium to the spira-
cles of the jaw-bearing
segments. These ideiiti-
fications are still doubt-
ful. Very similar hollow
processes for muscular

Fia. 61. — Section of imaginal head. &, enlarged second joint of antenna,
f, chitinous tunnel, e, epistome. I, labella.

1 CarriiTe on Ohalicodonia. 1897 ; Wheeler on Doryphora, 1889.

Eyes

91

attachment are met with where there can be no question
of spiracles, as in non-tracheate Arthropods, or in the
median thoracic region (cockroach and many other
insects). Chitinous tunnels like those of Chironomus
occur in a gnat, Anopheles (fig. 62) ^

The compound eyes are large in both sexes, but some- Eyes.
what larger in the male than in the female. AVe estimate
the number of facets in each eye as 225-250 in the male,
considerably fewer in the female. The corneal facets are
hemispherical on
their outer faces,
thick, and pro-
duced internally
into prominences
which look like
crystalline cones,
though they are
really crystalline
cells, four to-
gether. The outer
layer of the facets
is distinct and

separable. No crystalline cones are formed. The pig-
mented retinal cells form retinulae of six or sometimes
seven cells each.

There are no functional simple eyes, but between the J^*^|^^ ""^
compound eyes and near the top of the head are a pair of ^3"^^ "^
small stalks, which in the pupa are connected with the
brain by a single median nerve. Dufour^ has described,
in the crane-ly (Tipula oleracea), a minute ocellarj^
nerve terminated by a pigmented retina, and also a small

^ Mr. C. 0. Waterhouse (Labium and Submentum in Certain MandibuJafe
Insects, 1895) mentions that certain beetles show a pair of pits on the
submentum or gula. In Corydalis these are connected by a tube with
two openings in front of the antennae on the upper side of the head, so
that one can see daylight through the head, and a fine wire can be passed
freely through. ^ 1851, p. 178.

Fig. 62. — Horizontal section throngli head of Ano-
2)JieIes mactdiipcnnis, showing chitinous tunnels (c).

92

The Fly of Chironomits

Antennae.

rounded prominence behind tlie insertion of eacli antenna.

These he regards as the functionless representatives of

the ocelli of other Dipterous families. The Culicidae,

Chironomidae, Psychodidae,

Tipulidae, like the Simulidae

and most Cecidomyidae, have

as a rule no ocelli. Schiner

has however found traces of

ocelli in some Chironomidae,

especially Tanypus. Osten

Sacken ^ notes that Trichocera

has distinct ocelli, and he

thinks that Pedicia has some-

thino; like them.

The antennae differ ma-
terially in the two sexes
(fig. 64). In the male each
consists of thirteen joints, most of which appear at first

Fig. 63. — Section through pro-
cesses on vertex of fly, showing
nerve-pedicel connecting them
with the brain. From pupa..
X 300. Cf. fig. 140.

/

A

■J

Vs

I

\ • , ■

:.'-^'''-""

'_-.---—

c

J2

}

.. \

Fig. 64. — I, antenna of male fly.
3, antenna of female fly. x 20.

2, section through shaft of ditto.

sight to be simple cylinders. On closer examination
it is found that the shaft, composed of the last ten

' 1887, p. 169; 1892, pp. 460 r.

Antennae

93

joints, of wliicli the terminal one is very elongate, is
really a split tube (fig. 64, 2). This arises from the
infolding of the wall of the antenna during the pupal
stage. The completely exposed surface bears the long
setae, while the folded-in surface is beset with minute
elevations of the cuticle. A similar structure is found in
other species of Chironomus, and in the female as well as
in the male, though it is less marked in the female. The
female antenna is scarcely half the length of the male,
and consists of eight joints only. The second joint is
dilated, but much less so than in the male ; each of the

Fig. 65. — Enlarged seconil joint of antenna of male Cliironomus-fly. i, side
view (transparent). ./; peripheral fibres, eo, end-organs. X 150. 2, upper siarface
of ditto, the shaft being removed. X 150.

next five joints is enlarged in the middle ; the terminal
joint is long, but not nearly so long as in the male, and
only this takes the form of a split tube.

The three joints at the base of the antenna differ in
structure from those immediately beyond them. The
first joint is extremely short, sunk in the head, and
almost entirely occupied by the muscles which move
the antenna to and fro. The second joint is greatly
enlarged, and constitutes a peculiar sense-organ ; the
third joint, unlike those beyond it, is smooth, and carries

94

TJie Fly of CJiironomus

Auditory
organ
in the
antenna.

no large liairs or setae ; it is mucli narrowed at its inser-
tion into the second joint.

The second joint in Chironomidae and Culicidae
(especially in the males) exhibits a peculiar structure,
which is believed to serve for the perception of sound
(figs. 64-69). This joint swells out into a nearly globular
capsule, four or five times as wide as any of the succeed-
ing joints. On its upper surface ^ is the deep socket
for the third joint, which is incompletely divided into
an upper and a lower cavity by a horizontal, circular
shelf. The chitinous roof of the lower cavit}^, which

we shall call the striated
plate, is convex upwards,
and perforated by a central
hole for the base of the third
joint, from which radiate
many close-set striae.

The internal structure of
the second joint can only be
investigated by thin sections
and other delicate methods.
The striated plate is con-
tinued into the cavity of the
joint as a thin sheet, stiffened by very numerous radi-
ating fibres (the peripheral fibres), which, like the sheet
which unites them, are of chitinous substance. In Chiro-
nomus the sheet curves downwards from the socket of
the third joint, and forms a kind of dome (fig. 66). In the
gnat (figs. 67, 68) it curves upwards from the socket, and
forms a kind of basin. Each fibre is exactly in line with
one of the radiating striae on the striated plate. Outside
the peripheral fibres (i. e. between them and the outer
wall of the second joint), and to a less extent on the

Fig. 66. — Vertical section ot' en-
largeil second joint of antenna ot
male Cliirononius-fly. x 150.

' The antenna in this description is supposed to stand upright, with
the attached base downwards.

Auditory Organ in the Antenna 95

inside also, are many articulated brancJies, wliicli are
connected with a regular and close-set layer of end-
organs (fig. 67). These resemble slender cones, with
the apex turned towards the peripheral fibres, and the
base away from them. By maceration in weak chromic
acid the articulated branches are resolved into their
elements, slender rods with two to three elongate nuclei
apiece. These elements are not closely connected, at
least in the hardened tissues from which sections are
cut. They are arranged in about three rather irregular,
concentric zones, and appear slightly separated from
the end-organs. Both the
articulated branches and
the end-organs appear to
be peculiar modifications of
epidermic cells, or of inter-
cellular substance secreted
by them. A deep circular
fold of epidermis may be
supposed to pass, during
the development of the fly,

far into the interior of the , ^'«- 67- -Transverse section of en-

larged second joint oi antenna ot male
enlaro-ed ioint. The cells Chironomus-fly, showing end-organs.
. X '50.

give rise to the elongate

elements of the articulated branches and end- organs,
which acquire a radiate arrangement, and the peri-
pheral fibres with their connecting sheet form in the
cavity of the fold. The outer (morphologically inner)
surface of the end -organs is connected by delicate fibres
with a ganglionic layer, and this in turn by a multitude
of fibres with the antennary nerve (fig. 66). A. much
smaller branch of the antennary nerve passes along the
centre of the antenna to the remaining joints.

In the female fly the structure is similar, but far less
complex. Tanypus has almost the same antennal struc-

96

The Fly of CJiironomus

ture as Cliironomus. In the gnats (fig. 68), the free ends

of the peripheral
fibres turn upwards
(i. e. towards the free
end of the antenna),
instead of down-
wards as in Chiro-
nomus. The general
features are, how-
ever, much alike in
all the Nemocera
with enlarged second
joint.

Some of the pecu-
liarities of the en-
larged joint were described by Christopher Johnston

Fig. 68. — Enlarged second joint of antenna of
male fly of Atiojiheles macidipennis, showing
peripheral fibres. X 150.

Fig. 69. — Vertical section of enlarged second joint of antenna
of male gnat {Culex sj).), showing end-organs, &c.

(1855) from the male gnat or mosquito. He recognized
the auditory function of the antenna, and supposed that

Sounds emitted by Flies 97

it is set iu action by sound-waves, which throw the setae
into vibration ; these vibrations he believed to be trans-
mitted through the antenna to the cup or enlarged joint,
and to the corpusculate fluid which he supposed to fill it.
and which he compares to the endolymph of the verte-
brate ear. The vibrations are ultimately communicated to
the fibres of the antennary nerve. These early investiga-
tions are commemorated by the name oi Johnston' s organ,
often given to the structures contained in the enlarged
second joint of an insect's antenna.

The American phy.sicist, A. M. Mayer (1874), made
some interesting experiments on live gnats, glued to
slips of glass. Tuning-forks were sounded in the neigh-
bourhood of the gnats, and Mayer observed that some
of the setae of the antennae were thrown into vigorous
movement, especially when the fork Ut 4, giving 512
vibrations per second, was sounded. The forks Ut 3
and Ut 5 also set up more vibrations than intermediate
notes. Other setae responded to other notes. We have
repeated Mayer's experiments with the same general
result. The fork Ut 4 caused a great amount of vibra-
tion in the setae of Culex nemorosus^ affecting not
merely a few setae of particular length, but many
setae together; other forks produced a much smaller
effect.

Mayer points out that the auditory hairs whose direc-
tion is transverse to the path of the sound-waves are
most powerfully acted upon, while those which point to
or from the source of sound are least affected. Hence
the male can judge of the direction in which the female
is to be found.

We have next to inquire what sounds the female Sounds
emits which the male fly can perceive. On this point by flies.
the observations and experiments of Landois (1867).
though not made upon Chironomus, are instructive.

MIALI.. JI

gQ The Fly of Chironomus

He tells us that wlien a blue-bottle is flying a loud
buzz is liearcl. If the wings are held, a note of higher
pitch is produced by movements of the abdomen. If
such movements are stopped, a note of still higher pitch
is given out.

The lowest of the three notes is due, directly or
indirectly, to the vibration of the wings, and ceases
when they are held or cut off'. The middle note is
caused by vibration of the abdominal rings, which are
rubbed against one another from side to side ; the sound
may be increased by rubbing the head against the thorax.
If the head, legs, wings, and abdomen of an active fly
are all removed, so that the thorax is left with no vibra-
tile parts except the halteres, the highest note continues
to be heard. But if the thoracic spiracles, of which
there are two pairs, are choked with gum or wax, the
sound ceases. In the blue-bottle both pairs of thoracic
spiracles are well developed, but in some other flies
one or other pair may be useless for the production of
sound.

By investigating the structure of the spiracles, Landois
found that there is an air-chamber just within the
external outlet, and that the wall of this chamber is
folded, so as to give rise to a number of chitinous
laminae, which, he supposes, are caused to vibrate by
the forcible drawing of air in or out of the chamber.
The laminae are prevented from collapsing by a special
vocal ritig, over which the vibrating membrane is
stretched.

The flies of Culicidae can produce during flight the
note d". When the wings, legs, and head are removed,
they emit a shriller note. There are two pairs of spiracles,
of which the hinder pair are the larger. In each spiracle
there is a slit-like outlet, a stretched membrane, and an
elongate-oval vocal ring. The tension of the ring and

Moiitli-parts of Fly 99

membrane can be altered by muscular pull. The air-
chamber of the blue-bottle is not found in Culicixlae,
and the spiracle opens direct into the lateral trachea.
The note can be raised or lowered to some extent, and
Landois gives the pitch of the female fly of Culex annu-
latus as ranging from a' flat to b' flat, while that of the
male fly ranges from e" to f sharp.

We suppose that in all cases the antenna of the male
responds energetically to the note emitted by the female,
though this has hardly been proved with the requisite
nicety in any one case. The note of the female harlequin-
fly (due to wing- vibration) is b, that of the male a' sharp
(see p. 183). In both gnats and harlequin-flies the male
possesses a sound-producing organ, and the female a
sound-perceiving organ, but this last is smaller and
probably less efficient than the corresponding organ of
the op]30site sex.

The top of the rostrum (p. 90) is defended by a rounded Mouth-
chitinous plate, the epistome or anterior clypeus, which ^^^^ ^ ° ^'
is prominent and beset with long, sensory hairs. It is
supported in front and on the sides by a pair of slender,
cbitinous processes, which meet in front to form a narrow
transverse arch (fig. 61). This forms also the base of
the labrum, a bifid projection with membranous upper
surface. Beneath the labrum lies the pointed, serrate
tongue (lingua).

No trace of mandibles can be discovered. The maxillae
are reduced to a pair of long, four-jointed palps. A j^air
of labellae represent the labium, and enclose the labrum.
No food is taken by the fly, and the mouth-parts have no
functional importance, except that the palps, from their
large size, may be supposed to be useful as sense-organs.

The head is connected with the thorax by a neck, cervkai
whose cuticle is membranous. Just behind the head, on ^'^ ^^^ ^^'
the mid-dorsal line, is a lozenge-shaped piece, divided by

H 2

ICO

The Fly of Chirononms

a median suture ; this appears to represent a pair of dorsal
sclerites.
Thorav. A median section througli tlie thorax shows plainly the

limits of the segments upon
the ventral surface, but on
the sides the boundaries can
only be traced with difficulty
until the clue is discovered ^
Upon the mid-ventral sur-
face the protliorax is of
moderate extent, the meso-
thorax very large, the meta-
tliorax short, and defined by
two apodemes for muscular
attachment, the medifurca
and postfurca (tig. 70). Such
apodemes are common in

Fig. 70. — Ventral view of part of
thorax of fly, with the attachments
of intermediate and hind legs. &i,
mesosternnm. <, trochanter of in-
termediate leg. f, ./; trochanter and
femur of hind leg. a, abdomen. The
medifiirea and postfurca are seen in
the middle line.

Fig. 71. — Nearly median section of fly, showing the longitudinal
niesothoracic muscles above, and the vertical ones below, .ff, (/', f/",
pro-, meso-, and metathoracic ganglia, il, intermediate leg. lil,
hind-leg.

' Note by A. Hammond. In my paper on the thorax of the blow-fly
{Journal Linn. Sue. Zool., vol. xv, 1881, pp. 9-31) I determined the whole of

Mouth-parts of Fly

lOI

insects ; they are iiifold-
ings of the integument,
which may either remain
hollow or become filled
with chitinous deposit. In
the Chironomus-fly they
are hollow. Each gives
off from its upper part
a pair of hollow, lateral
extensions, so that it may
be compared to a letter Y.
Each segment bears its
own ganglion (fig. 71).
The prothoracic and meta-
thoracic ganglia occupy a
large proportion of the
length of their respective
segments ; the mesotho-
racic ganglion is placed

the posterior portion of the cavity
of the thorax to be mesothoracic.
At that time I had not the advan-
tage of the serial sections prepared
for tlie present description of Chiro-
nomus. The section from which
fig. 74 is taken shows the larval
recti ventrales muscles still remain-
ing amid the newly forming mus-
cles of the imago. The metatho-
racic muscles of this series extend
forwards to the medifurca, where
the mesothoracic muscles begin.
This observation shows me that
my former view must be materi-
ally altered. I now concur in the
viewsstatedin thepresent chapter.

Fig. 72. — Side view of female Chironomus-fly. The prothorax and meta-
tliorax are dotted, tg, scar of pupal tracheal gill, sp, mesothoracic spiracle.
The metathoracic and abdominal spiracles are also shown.

I02

The Fly of Chironomus

towards the hinder end of the large segment to which it
belongs.

The chief part of the prothorax of the fly consists of
an obliquely placed ring, which encloses the muscles
of the fore-leg. On the dorsal surface it appears as
a narrow band, with a median incisure and suture.
The ring is thicker below, and defined by consjDicuous
grooves (fig. 72). At first sight it would appear that
this ring formed the whole prothorax. But the tracheal
gill of the pupa is certainly prothoracic (p. 142), and the

scar left upon the
thorax of the fly by
this tracheal gill
must be prothoracic
also. We have there-
fore to extend the
prothorax of the
pupa or fly, so as to
include the tracheal
gill or its scar. The
extension has been
called the humerus,
an unfortunate name
for a part of the
thorax ; it is the paratreme of Lowne. This part of
the prothorax has no clear boundary in Chironomus, but
thins away gradually, and passes into the conjunctival
membrane ; in some other Diptera it is clearly defined.

The mesothorax is enormous, and chiefly occupied by
the powerful muscles which are directly or indirectl}''
concerned in flight. On its fore edge the anterior thoracic
spiracle can be easily made out. The humped dorsal
surface shows a prominent semi-cylindrical transverse
ridge ; this is the scutellum ; the wings are attached on
either side of it. Behind the scutellum the dorsal surface

???f.

Fig. 73. — Mesothoracic muscles of fly. ?.hj, lon-
gitudinal muscles, v.m, vertical ditto mt, meta-
thorax. I'" hind-leg:.

Mouth-parts of Fly

103

makes a step downwards to the post-scutellum, which
exhibits 011 its dorsal surface a pair of phxtes ; these
meet along- the middle line, and have together an
oval outline. Below, the mesothorax swells into
a great hemispherical prominence, the mesosternum,
which is convex downwards, its dejDth allowing a great
prolongation of the vertical mesothoracic muscles. The

/^'

Fig. 74. — Horizontal section tlirougli meso- and metathorax of pupa
(enclosed in larva), mf, medifurca. Im, Im', remains of larval muscles
as yet unabsorbed, the posterior series being those of the metathorax
and indicating the extent of that segment, vm, vertical muscles.

intermediate legs are attached to the hinder part of the
mesosternum by oval sockets.

The metathorax is small in comparison with the meso-
thorax. On its side may be seen the posterior thoracic
spiracle, and above it the haltere, or rudimentary hind-
wing. On the dorsal surface there is a small metathoracic
plateau, on either side of the post-scutellum and at a

I04

The Fly of Chironomiis

considerably lower level : a deep groove separates the
two. The metathorax possibly reaches the mid-dorsal line
in the groove between the post-scutellum and the first
abdominal segment. The ventral surface of the meta-
thorax is both short and narrow ; it is largely occupied
by the insertion, close together, of the two hind legs.

Proof of the boundaries of the segments is in most
places easily obtained by thin sections, though now and
then the determination is difficult. The apodemes, the
muscular intersections, and the intrinsic muscles of the
metathorax furnish the chief evidence.

Legs. The legs' are long and

slender. The fore pair, which
are longer than the others,
are usually raised in the air
like feelers, when the insect
is at rest. The last joint of
the tarsus of each leg bears
a pair of claws and a large,
bifid empodium, which acts
as an adhesive disc.

Wings. The wings do not extend

beyond the sixth abdominal
segment ; they are furnished
with two small accessory

lobes close to the root. When at rest, the wings cover
the back and slope away on either side. The venation
is fully described in systematic books.

Abdomen. The abdomeu is long and slender, especially in the
male, and consists of nine segments, the hindmost being
modified to form the reproductive armature.

In the female fly the seventh abdominal segment is
normal (fig. 75), both the dorsal (tergum) and venti-al
plate (sternum) being well developed. The eighth seg-
ment shows a semi-lunar tergum and a pair of ventral

Fig. 75 — Last abdominal segments
(vii, viii, ix) of female fly, ventral
view, sc, sclerite. go, genital orifice.
(7(70, outlet of gluten-gland, v, valve.

Abdomen

T05

sclerites ; in the flexible membrane between them is the
reproductive orifice, and close to it, the outlet of the
gluten-gland (fig. 75, ggo). The ninth or terminal seg-
ment is small, and bears a pair of valves ; the anus opens
on its dorsal surface.

In the male fly (fig. 76) the eighth abdominal segment
shows no unusual features ; the ninth tergum is shield-
like and bears a small median spine, which projects a little

Fig. 76. — Genital armature of male fly. i, ventral, j, dorsal.
3. lateral.

beyond its posterior edge. The ninth sternum is deeply
bilobed. Three pairs of appendages are enclosed within
it, diminishing regularly inwards. The innermost pair
appears to be suj)ported by a small median plate. These
appendages are a little upturned ; the outer ones are
slightly curved, and form a forceps.

These appendages of the male fly probably serve as
claspers. It has been remarked tliat they do not occur

. io6 The Fly of Chironomiis

in insects whose females bear an ovipositor. Similar
appendages are found in Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, and
Epliemeridae. The styles of the cockroach are borne
upon the same segment. The median dorsal spine
(suranal plate of some authors) has been explained as
an undeveloped tenth segment.

Nervous The followiug features distinguish the nervous system

system. o o j

of the fly from that of the larva : —

The brain and sub -oesophageal ganglion, now enclosed
in the head, are more widely separated from the rest of
the nerve-cord. Each thoracic ganglion lies in its own seg-
ment. The first abdominal ganglion is closely united with
themetathoracic,and the seventh and eighth become fused.

We may perhaps say that there is some amount of
decentralization during the transformation of Chironomus.
Certain families of Brachyceran Diptera, such as Stratio-
myidae, Tabanidae, Syrphidae, Conopidae, and Acalypte-
rate Muscidae, exhibit the same process of decentralization,
the ganglia becoming separated during metamorphosis.
In Calypterate Muscidae, Oestridae, Hippoboscidae, and
Nycteribiidae the thoracic and abdominal ganglia, which
were already fused in the larva, remain so. Decentrali-
zation may also occur in Coleoptera. Thus in most
Lamellicorns, as well as in some Curculionidae and
Scolytidae, the ganglia of the ventral cord are so closely
a23proximated in the larva as to appear like a single
ganglionic mass, while after transformation the thoracic
ganglia at least are separated, and double connectives
form between them.

Alimentary In the fly the whole alimentary canal is considerably
reduced (fig. 80). The salivary glands may shrink to two
minute and structureless membranous sacs ^, the epithelial
cells of the stomach almost completely disappear (fig. 113),
and the rectal folds, to be described below, are the only
indication of a structure more complex in the alimentary
canal of the fly than in that of the larva.

It is evident that Chironomus does not feed in the winged

' In another species this shrinkage of the salivary glands was not found
to occur.

Alimentary Canal

107

state. Tlie month-parts, thougli of elaborate structure, are
never used in feeding, and tlie alimentary canal of the fly
is empty, except for a greenish fluid, which fills the
stomach of the pupa and newly emerged fly. In male
flies the abdomen is empty and collapsed, the under-side
being concave and applied to the upper, except in the
segments which contain the reproductive organs. The
pulsating dorsal vessel and the
tracheal system can be seen by
the microscope, but the sto-
mach, subcutaneous muscles,
and nerve-cord are hardly
visible. In males reared in
captivity the abdomen is com-
paratively plump for a day or
two. The beginning of the
stomach, which is enclosed in
the metathorax of the larva,
gets close to the head in the
pupa and fly, in consequence
of the shortening of the oeso-
phagus and prothorax.

The rectum, which is unde-
veloped in the larva, is easil}^
demonstrated in the fly. It
forms a short, wide chamber,
containing two oval papillae, which are largely supplied
with tracheae (fig. 77). These appear to correspond to
the ' rectal glands ' or ' folds ' found in many insects of
different orders. They vary greatly in number. Chiro-
nomus has two, most other Diptera four, Pulex, most
Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Orthoptera six, Lepido-
ptera 60-200, Coleoptera and Hemiptera none. They are
absent in larvae, with a few exceptions. In many cases
the rectal papillae are freely supplied with tracheae,

Fig. 77. — Rectal papilla of fly,
with tracheae.

io8 The Fly of Chironomus

a circumstance which tells in favour of Leydig's sup-
position that they are primarily respiratory organs — •
a supposition which is far from general acceptance at
present. We can give no account of the function of these
organs in Chironomus.

The Malpighian tubules persist unchanged throughout
the metamorj^hosis, being, we may suppose, still required
for the elimination of the abundant waste material
formed by the destruction of various larval tissues.
Heart. We liave seen (p. 71) that in the larva the contractile

and valvular heart is restricted to the hinder part of the
body. As the tracheal system attains a fuller develop-
ment, the part of the dorsal vessel in front of the original

heart becomes chambered. New
inlets and valves apj^ear, and
the muscular tissues become
^/sT'y-^ "^^^^W ii^ore complex. In the late
^1^^\%Z]/ larva, pupa, and fly, the dorsal

X.,.^.'^-^'' vessel is chambered throughout

the abdomen. In the pupa and

Fig. 78 — Transverse section <>t' ^

rectal papilla of fly (from larva), fly the tllOracic pOrtioil of the
X 300. '^ 5 .

dorsal vessel exhibits a feature
which we have not found in early larvae, viz. a numerous
series of what we take to be ganglia, placed alternately
on the right and left sides in the neighbourhood of the
head. These were also found in the larva of Corethra by
Dogiel (1877).
Tracheal The two paii's of tlioracic spiracles of most insects

system.

are now believed to belong to the meso- and meta-
thorax. This has been proved for several Coleoptera ' and
Hymenoptera (A^Dis, Hylotoma), Hemij^tera (Coccidae),
and Thysanura (Lepisma). We believe that no clear case
of a prothoracic spiracle has been recorded in any winged

' See Heider on Hydroj)hi]u-^, Wheeler on Doryplioia, Graber on Melo-
lontlia and Lina.

Tracheal System 109

insect. In Chironomus the posterior thoracic spiracle is
clearly nietathoracic, while the anterior spiracle lies in
the groove between the pro- and mesothorax. The
tendency of the spiracles to shift into the intersegmental
grooves in front may be attributed to the necessity of
protection for an organ of vital importance.

In Aphis-larvae the whole series can be plainly seen.
Each segment has its own pair of spiracles, that of the
prothorax being of peculiar form ; the spiracle in all
cases is situated near the middle of the segment.

The tracheal system of the fly, though very much more
extensive than that of the larva, is not so elaborate as in
large insects of powerful flight. Its arrangement is as
follows : — The anterior or mesothoracic spiracle is con-
nected by a short branch with a longitudinal trunk,
which sends off several branches to the head, and with an
external branch which passes outside the vertical muscles
of the mesothorax. There is a pair of good-sized air-sacs
between the vertical and longitudinal muscles of the
mesothorax. The main longitudinal trunks pass inside
the vertical muscles, and are connected in front of them
by a transverse branch. They are continued forwards to
the head, and in this part of their course lie very near
to the dorsal vessel. From each metathoracic spiracle a
branch joins the main longitudinal tnink, which gives off
at the same place a large descending branch. The trunks
are then continued into the abdomen, and receive
branches from the spiracles. The abdominal spiracles
are so minute that it is hard to say how many of them
are open ; probably either four or five, viz. those lying
in the intersegmental spaces behind the four or five
anterior abdominal segments.

In the more primitive insects, the reproductive organs Reproduc-
are not very unlike in the two sexes, and the general
arrangement is comparatively simple. A number of

no The Fly of Chirononms

tubes, ovarian or seminal, enter paired ducts (oviducts
or vasa deferentia), which run lengthwise through the
abdomen. The ovarian or seminal tubes approximate to
the number of the segments, and sometimes give indica-
tions of segmental arrangement ^ ; they commonly enter
the ducts at right angles or nearly so, and from one side
only ^,

In Ephemeridae ^ the outlets are double in both sexes,
and this we suppose to be the primitive arrangement.
In the great majority of insects, however, the ducts unite
behind ; and there may be a common tube, divided into
chambers of special functions, and receiving the secre-
tions of accessory glands. The common tube is usually
prolonged by the invagination, or inward telescoping,
of the integument around the outlet ; a considerable
section may thus be added to the original ducts, and
furnished with recesses, glands, &c., of its own. The
invaginated portion is usually lined by a chitinous
membrane, continuous with the chitinous cuticle of the
external surface^. The ovarian or seminal tubes often
deviate greatly from their original disposition. In the
male all, or all but one, of the seminal tubules may be
suppressed ; and the functional testis is then either
a dilatation of the sperm-duct, or a cajisule of similar
form. In the female the original number of ovarian
tubes is often retained, but they may be reduced or
greatly multiplied. In the earwig, for instance, there is
only one ovarian tube on each side, but this gives off
three longitudinal rows of short secondary tubes.'^ In
female Diptera we often hnd a similar arrangement,

• .Tapyx, according to Grassi, AVi d. R. Ac. Lincei, 1888.
- Oudemans, 1887, pi. iii, figs. 41-43.

•'■ Palmen, Puarige Ausfilhrungsgdnge d. GeschlecMsorgane bei Insecten (1884).
' Palmen (loo. cit., pi. v) gives useful diagrams of the morphology of
the reproductive passages in a number of insects.

* Dufour, Ann. Sci. Nat, xiii. (1828),

Female Organs

III

a multitude of short tubes opening into one central

passage.

The essential reproductive organs are the ovaries and
testes, within which the ova
and sperm-filaments (spermato-
zoa) are formed. Particular
germinal cells, formed within a
part of the ovary distinguished
as the germarium, are converted
into ova, nutritive cells, or folli-
cular epithelial cells ; particular
cells of the epithelium of the
testis undergo repeated division,
and form multitudes of seminal
filaments. In Chironomus we
find the remarkable and almost
unique phenomenon, that the
eggs or sperm-filaments are de-
veloped from cells which have
never formed part of a perma-
nent tissue ; they are believed
to be merely handed on from
generation to generation, and
though some of the cells to
wdiich they give rise are differ-
entiated for special purposes
and used up, others undergo no
change except division ^.

Let us now examine the struc- Female
ture of the female organs in the

Pig. 79.— Ovary from fuU-grown n (> r\\ • mi

larva. The external envelope is lly 01 UllironomuS. lilC OVariaU

tubes (fig. 79) are short and ex-
tremely numerous, radiating from a central axis which
takes the place of an oviduct, or else of a primary

^ Weismann, 1889.

organs.

IT2

The Fly of Chironomus

ovarian tube. The axis is not

g9

al~

Fiii. 80. — Abdominal cavity of female fly.
«?, alimentary canal, f/s, gluten-gland. The
ovary ana the paired spermathecae are also
seen. Dorsal surface to left, outlet below.

Fifi. 8i. — Two ovarioles. i, optical section. 2, surface
view, fc, follicular epithelium, o, ovum.

visibly hollow, but that
it is an actual oviduct
may be inferred from the
fact that all the eggs de-
veloped within the nu-
merous tubes escape in
a continuous egg-mass.
The whole collection of
ovarian tubes is enclosed
within a transparent
outer sheath, and consti-
tutes the ovary, a smooth,
sausage - shaped organ,
which unites behind with
its fellow. From the
point of junction of the
two ovaries a short, wide
oviduct or uterus passes
backwards, and is con-
tinued to the genital
outlet by the ectodermal
invaoination described
below. The two ovaries
are applied to each other
along almost their whole
length, but are not every-
where in contact,
for an unpaired
sac, the gluten-
gland (fig. 80). lies
between them.
The three to-
gether form a
large semi-trans-
parent mass,

Female Organs

1T3

which fills almost the whole abdomen, and bulges
a little into the thorax. Above it lies the empty
alimentary canal. Many tracheae ramify on the surface
of the ovaries.

A single ovarian tube consists of three successive
chambers of unequal size, connected by narrow passages

^--

Fig. 82. — Ovary, from pupa. To left a number of follicles ;
to right a single follicle, o, ovum. 7/, yolk-granules.

V -

(fig. 81). The free extremity is a short thread, and from
the other end a narrow duct passes towards the axis
of the ovary.' Microscopic study
of the large chamber in an oviduct
not yet mature shows that it con-
tains, as in other Diptera, an ovum,
several nucleated cells, yolk, and
a follicular epithelium. This last
secretes the chorion or egg-shell,
and afterwards disappears (fig. 83).
The two chambers next above each
contain a small ovum and a few ^ „ r. ■ , ,

Fig. 83. — Ovarian chamber,

nutritive cells ; the distal portion ^i^n"^ %• »' o^™- *'. nntri-

live cells. </, yolk.

or germarium is very minute, and

its contents are not visibly differentiated.

The rest of the female reproductive organs is derived
from invaginated epidermis, and lined with chitinous

114

The Fly of Chironomus

cuticle ; it consists of the gluten-gland and a pair of
spermatliecae.

The gluten-gland extends between the ovaries for the
greater part of the length of the abdomen. It is of
elongate-oval shape, and externally smooth and undivided.
A cross-section shows that it is occupied by four longi-
tudinal segments (dorsal, ventral, and two lateral) of a
coagulable, transparent secretion, from which is derived
the bulk of the egg-mass (fig. 84). The wall of the gland
is rather thick, and shows in order, beginning from the
outside, a connective-tissue sheath, a layer of transverse
muscle-fibres, a space filled with granules in several

Fig. 84.- — Transverse
section of gluton-gland
offemale fly, showing the
siibdivision of the secre-
tion into four masses.

Fig. 85. — Spermatliecae and their
ringed ducts, irom i'emale fly.

layers, a basement-membrane, and a lining ej)itlielium,
which in the pupa shows cells charged with secreted
matter.

A ]3air of spermatliecae (fig. 85) lie on the ventral
surface beneath the gluten-gland ; they are derived from
rudiments contained in the eleventh segment, and form
nearly spherical capsules, about -25 mm. in diameter,
with short ducts, which converge to a common opening
close to that of the gluten-gland. The ducts have
muscular walls, and internally show a pseudo-tracheal
structure, similar to that often seen in the salivary ducts

Female Organs

115

of insects. Both the capsules and ducts may be filled
with seminal filaments.

The common oviduct, the spermathecae, and the gluten-
gland, all open close together into a deep intersegmental
fold at the junction of the eleventh and twelfth segments
of the larva (fig. 75, go, ggo).

Before egg-laying the epithelium of the ovarian tubes,
and apparently that of the small egg-chambers, are
completely absorbed.
In a female fly, taken
just before egg-lay-
ing, thin sections re-
vealed hardly any-
thing within the
abdomen excej)t the
eggs, the gluten -
gland, the sperma-
thecae, the shrivelled
alimentary canal, and
the unaltered Malpi-
ghian tubules. A
clear, thin line sur-
rounded each egg,
which we took to be
the last trace of the
wall of the ovarian
tube. In some places
this was found lying in actual contact with the epidermis
of the body- wall.

The external female organs are described on p. 104.

During copulation the spermathecae are filled with
seminal filaments from the male. One egg descends
from each ovarian tube, the others remaining un-
developed. It is not known where fertilization is effected.
The very numerous eggs as they pass out are enveloped

I 2

Fic 86. — Female organs removed from the
larva, s, spermatheca. (/, gluten-glaud.

ii6

The Flv of Chironomus

Male
organs.

by the secretion of the giuten-ghaiid ; this consists of
transparent mucilage, and is shaped into a cylinder with
rounded ends. The detailed structure of the cylinder is
described in chap, vi, p. 153.

The contents of both ovaries and of the gluten-gland
are discharged simul-
taneously. "As in many
other cases of coated eggs,
first
but
on
In

the mucilage is at
scanty and dense,
swells enormously
reaching the water
some species of Chiro-
nomus the contents of the
two ovaries seem to le-
main distinct, except that
they become fused at one
place. In C. dorsalis they
are intricately blended.

The male organs of the
fly consist of a pair of
testes, a pair of sperm-
ducts, and an ejaculatory
duct. The testis, when
ripe, is filled with long-
simple sperm - filaments,
developed as usual from
compound cellular masses
(spermospores) which arise
by repeated division of
single cells. The sperm-
ducts are long and slender, and pass backwards as
far as the junction of the penultimate with the last
abdominal segment, where they open into the ejacu-
latory duct. This now passes forwards for a consider-

Fio. 87. — Male genital organs of fly.
(, testis, vd, vas deferens, g, d, ejacu-
latory duct, vs, vesicula semiualis.

Male Organs 117

able distance, and is again bent backward to find its
outlet in the last segment. A dilatation in the first part
of its course is frequently seen to be filled with sperm-
filaments ; the walls are glandular, at least in the late
larva and pupa, and perhaps in the fly also. Fig. 88
shows sections through the bight of the ejaculatory duct
in the late larva, where each section exhibits a double
tube lined with long cylinder epithelium. Many insects
exhibit paired accessory glands, contributing a glutinous
secretion to the spermatic fluid. In Chironomus, how-
ever, the same product appears to be secreted by the
glandular wall of the duct itself. The wall of the duct
has a delicate coat of transverse muscles.

Fig. 8S. — Sections across the bight of the ejaeailatory duct (see line in fig. 102),
from larva.

The external male parts are described on p. 105.

Oscar von Grrimm (1870) has described the liberation
of unfertilized eggs, capable of development, from a pair
of genital orifices situated on the eighth abdominal
segment of the pupa of a small species of Chironomus.
Confirmation of this observation is much to be desired ^
Many examples of parthenogenesis in insects have been
recorded, and Cecidomyia (Miastor) is known to be
capable of parthenogenetic and viviparous reproduction
as a larva.

' We have not found the ventral apertures of Grimm, but note tliat a
pair of transparent rounded bodies, the spermathecae, lie exactly in the
same place, and are seen through the skin of a female pupa.

CHAPTER IV

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUPA AND FLY WITHIN
THE LARVA

General In Cliironomus the fly differs so conspicuously from

explana- . „ ,

tiona. the larva that, without direct observation oi the passage

of the one into the other, no naturalist could have guessed
that they were in any way related. In certain insects
the transition from the creeping to the flying stage is
mainly effected by small additions and modifications,
which take place beneath the skin, and only become
apparent at times of moult. Thus in a locust the wings,
crumpled up within their sheaths, become longer and
longer every time the skin is cast. While the wings
are being perfected by definite, though not very con-
spicuous steps, the reproductive organs steadily increase
in bulk and complexity, and at length the adult structure
is attained without any sudden alteration of form, any
change of food, or any resting-stage.

In most insects the larval stage is a time of voracious
feeding, while the winged fly either does not feed at all,
or feeds u]Don food which can be quickly taken into the
body, and which does not materially hinder flight.
A radical change of mouth-parts thus becomes necessary,
and such a change involves a resting-stage. It is
popularly believed that during the resting-stage the
new mouth-parts, the compound eyes, the long antennae,
the long legs, and the wings, all of which characterize

The Transformation of Chironomus 1 19

the adult insect, are formed. The arguments long ago
employed by Swammerdam, or a careful study of what
happens in the transformation of any moth or butterfly.
Avould be enough to refute such notions. The parts in
question are complete (to outward appearance, at least)
when the pupal stage begins, and can often be revealed
by dissection before the pupal stage approaches. The
microscopic rudiments of the imaginal organs can some-
times be found in a very young larva, or even in the
embryo.

In the Muscidae, which happened to be the first
Dipterous insects to be thoroughly investigated, the
unlikeness of the larva to the winged fly becomes
extreme. Buried in its food, the larva requires no limbs,
and only a vestige of a head. The fly, on the contrary,
is elaborate in structure beyond almost all other insects.
more elaborate by reason of the simplicity of the maggot.
It undertakes all the functions connected with the
choice of a site and food suitable for the larva, and the
contrast in activity and intelligence is as striking as
the contrast in form.

Chironomus is less complex in its latest stage, more The trans-

1 • • 1 1 , 1 Tin 1 formation

complex m its larval stage, than a blow-fly, or perhaps of chiro-
any other Muscid. Hence its transformation, though
difficult to make out, is much more intelligible than that
of the Muscidae, upon which the labours of a generation
of entomologists have already been bestowed. Other
Dipterous insects are simpler than Chironomus in par-
ticular points, such as the development of the imaginal
head and its appendages, but taking it as a whole,
Chironomus is, of all the well-known Dipterous types, the
fittest for an elementary study of imaginal development.
What may be conveniently called imaginal folds often
play a great part in the development of the new organs
of an insect. In the simplest cases they are shallow

120 Development within the Larva

infolclings of tlie epidermis, but at times tlieir real
character is not evident without close inspection. They
may penetrate far below the surface, and the invaginated
layer, which connects them with the rest of the epidermis,
may be hardly visible. The infolded cells may proliferate,
and form solid masses within the body. Hence the name
of hnaginal discs, originally applied by Weismann to
complex structures of this sort.

The chief alterations which are necessary to convert the
larva of Chironomus into a flying
insect are these. Biting mouth-
parts are -replaced by suctorial
ones, suited to the nourishment
of an insect which must not be
loaded with food nor spend
much time in feeding. In our
common English species of
Chironomus the fly does not feed
at all, but the adaptation to a
change of food takes place not-
withstanding, and the mouth-
organs of the fly, though not
functional, are formed as in cer-
tain other Diptera which still
occasionally feed upon the honey

pairs). met, metathorax (two ^f ^p^j^ flowCrS (Tipula, Bibio,

&c.). The eyes and antennae,
which were rudimentary in the burrowing larva, become
large and complex. "Wings and long thoracic legs are
developed. The hinder abdominal segments become
modified for reproduction. The fly no longer inhabits the
water, and it breathes by tracheae with open spiracles
instead of by organs of aquatic respiration. Every part
of the body undergoes change, and all the external organs
are completely recast.

Fig. 89. — Early state of ima-
ginal rudiments, from tiiorax
of living larva, pro, protliorax
(with one pair of rudiments
only). mes, niesothorax (two

Imagtnal Rudiments in Thorax

121

Until tlie last larval change of skin, wliicli takes place
when the larva is of about half its full len2:th, the chief
organs already developed which belong to the organization
of the future fly are the nervous system and the repro-
ductive glands, which grow
steadily throughout the larval
stage. Soon after the insect
enters upon its last larval stage,
the rudiments of the head, wings,

Fig. 90.— Early rudiment of and IcgS of the fly begin to fomi.
prothoracic imaginal leg.

If we take a larva at the be- imagiuai

n ■ -, . -. . . 1 /-■ rudiments

ginning or its last stage, 1. e. when it is about half in thorax.

Fig. 91. — Imaginal rudiments from thorax of larva, more
advanced than in lig. 95. The rudiments are enclosed in
their capsules (outer walls of invaginations). I, V, I", first,
second, and third legs, w, wing, h, haltere.

an inch long, we shall discover new growths in the
thorax, just beneath the skin. An alcohol-preserved
larva is best, and we have found it a good plan to
divide sach larvae into lateral halves, remove the ali-
mentary canal, stain the body-wall with picrocarmine,

122 Development ivithin the Larva

and mount in Farrant's medium. Several larvae, of
different degrees of maturity, should be prepared in this
way. The new rudiments will be found arranged in two
rows, dorsal and ventral, and there is a dorsal and ventral
set to each thoracic segment. The ventral rudiments
ultimately yield the legs of the fly. They can be
followed from the first simple buds, enclosed in trans-
parent sheaths (the outer walls of the imaginal folds),
until they become long and convoluted, divided into
joints, and covered with hairs. Sections taken at

g

w -

Tig. 92. — Thoracic appendages of papa and fly, as seen in larva about
to pupate. The larval skin has been removed. Left hand, side view :
right hand, ventral view, i, I', I", first, second, and third legs, w, wing.
h, haltcre. g, prothoracic tracheal gill (of pni)a).

different times reveal all the stages of tissue-development.
As the legs increase in lengtli they become folded
beneath the larval skin in the manner represented in
fig. 92.

The two hinder pairs of dorsal appendages give rise to
the wings and halteres. The case of the prothoracic
dorsal appendage presents some perplexing features.
It develops into a short tube, from which three main

Imaginal Rudiments in Thorax 123

branches proceed, and these by further division form
a multitude of filaments, which are the tracheal gills, or
respiratory organs of the pupa. Is it possible that this
was ever wing-like, as the corresponding structures of
the meso- and metathorax now are ? Is it possible that
the nervures of the prothoracic wing have persisted as
branching tubes, while the intervening web has been
suppressed ? In some species of Chironomus and in many
other Nemocera, we find pupal respiratory trumpets
on the prothorax, instead of bunches of respiratory
filaments. It has been conjectured that such trumpets
represent wing-like rudiments, rolled up into tubes.
But another origin for the pupal trumpet is suggested by
the row of holes which we find upon its upper border in
Dicranota. These favour the view that the trumpet is
the basal tube greatly enlarged, and dej^rived of all
its branching filaments, or else that the tracheal gill
has arisen by the drawing out of the margins of the holes
in a pupal re.spiratory trumpet. Wing-like dorsal appen-
dages are not alwa3^s restricted to the thoracic segments.
In Ephemeridae flattened folds of integument are found
on the abdominal segments of the larvae, as in the very
common Chloeon dipterum, where they resemble in form
and insertion the larger plates which enclose the future
wings. The abdominal appendages of Ephemeridae are
the tracheal gills of the larvae. By their vigorous
flapping movements they continually bring a rush of
water against their richly tracheated surfaces, and, as it
would seem, promote the respiratory gas-exchange. It
is possible, though not proved, that the original function
of such appendages was respiratory, and that the con-
version of some of them into wings is a secondary
development. In certain Carboniferous Ephemeridae
all three thoracic segments bear expansions, which have
the form and the venation of true wings, and the

124 Development zvithiu the Larva

narrowing of tlieir bases seems to show that even the
prothoracic pair were articulated like wings \ though
their forward position seems hardly compatible with the
notion that they were serviceable in raising the body
from the ground.

The patagia of Lepidoptera and Caddis-flies have been
identified with prothoracic wings by Cholodkowsky, but
Haase points out that they agree better with the tegulae
found on the mesothorax of certain insects.

Fig. 9^. — Transverse section of late larva, showing : J\ fiitty
cells. <, tracheal gill of pupa. I, Ibre-leg. oe, oesophagus.
n, nerve-cord.

It is to be observed, however, that the doreal protho-
racic rudiments, from which the pupal tracheal gills of
Chironomus j^roceed, are the last to be developed. It is
not till the larva is almost full-grown, and long after the
other thoracic appendages are visible, that they appear.
In the same way the corresponding organs of the blow-
fly, the prothoracic appendages of the pupa, are the only
imaginal rudiments which cannot be traced back to the

' BroDgniart, Reck, pour servir a Vhistoire des Inscctes fussiles des ktnps
piiiiiaircs. 2 vols. 4to. St. Etienne, 1893.

Shrinkage of Larval Prothorax 125

embryo ^ This may mean that the prothoracic tracheal
gills are of comparatively recent origin, and that they
are not truly in series with the dorsal appendages of the
two hinder thoracic segments.

We feel no great confidence in any such explanations
of the origin of the dorsal prothoracic rudiments as we or
any others may have entertained. The possibility that
they were once wing-like is not to be lost sight of till
it is disproved, but it is at least possible that they have
never existed in any other form than the launch of
filaments, the tube
ojDen or closed, or
some other pupal
respiratory organ.

In the Chirono-
mus-pupa the wings
are of simple out-
line, bnt they are
too large to expand
within the larval
skin, and are there-
fore for a time
much folded. The
imaginal wings form within the j)^^pal vvings, and are
also much folded.

The prothorax shrinks greatly during the last days of shrinkage
the larA^a. The head and the tracheal gill, which were prothorax.
widely separated, come gradually nearer together, and in
the pupa the gill lies just behind the head. Fig. 95
shows a dorsal j^rotrusion filled with disintegrated larval
tissues, which represents the way in which a great part
of the larval prothorax is made to disappear.

In the late larva and pupa the body-cavity, especially Phago-
in the thorax, may contain clusters of cells which very
^ Weismann, Entw. der Bipteren, p. 145.

Fig. 94. — Sagittal section of larva, passing through
base of piipal tracheal gill. The compound eye of
the fly is seen within the prothorax ; the muscles of
the larval head are undergoing liistolysis. s, an-
terior thoracic spiracle, r, tracheal gill, wi, vertical
mesothoracic muscles.

126 Development within the Larva

closely resemble the granular spheres [KbrncTienhugeln)
of Weismann, and are probably phagocytes gorged with
the products of disintegration of larval structures. The
eating up of the larval muscles by phagocytes is, however,
much less striking than in the blow-fl3^ We have never

Fig. 95.— Sagittal (nearly median) section through head and prothorax of
larva, shortly before pupation, a, antenna of fly. 6, enlarged second joint
of ditto, pr, larval prothorax. pj*', pupal prothorax, showing absorption
of contents and marked retraction, m, mesothoracic muscles.

seen in Chironomus larval muscles excavated by pha-
gocytes, nor fragments of striped muscle lying inside
phagocytes, though both can be demonstrated in the

Fig. 96. — Developing iniaginal muscles, with central nuclei, enclosed by
contractile substance, i, muscles attached to epidermis {ep). 2, transverse
section of ditto.

blow-fly. In Chironomus the disintegration of the
larval organs of the thorax is relatively slow, and the
muscles, for instance, seem to waste gradually and
uniformly, while undergoing for a long time no marked
change in external form.

Imaghial Folds of Head

T27

AVe liave specially studied tlie development of the head imagiimi
of the imago within the larval head, and the following hQil!"
account is largely taken from our paper of 1892.

In larvae about half an inch long the epidermis of the
top of the head begins to
be infolded along two
longitudinal lines, which
run forwards from the
junction of the head and
thorax, diverging a little
as they do so. These lines
correspond to the margins

of the clypeUS in the larval Fig. 97.— Early state of invagination
1 -, YT\\ • 1 -1 ^'^^ imaginal antenna, from larva, divided

nead. llie epidermis, thus along middle line. /, longitudinal in-
carried into the interior, ""^ ""

gives rise to new cuticular organs, first to the pupal
cuticle, and subsequently to the various external organs
of the head of the fly.
The cuticle of the head
of the jmpa is of less
interest, and its for-
mation need not be
23articularly described.
The comj)ound eye and
antenna of the fly
originate in these epi-
dermic folds, and are

therefore developed at ^."^ 98. -Trans verse section through invagi-

r nations tor imagmal head (early state). The

a distance from the section passes through the junction of the head

and prothorax. c, larval cuticle, y, longitu-
larval cuticle, though dinal fold, a, antenna of imago, dv, dorsal

vessel, ces, oesophagus.

they are from the first

external in their morphological position. The outer wall,
the bottom, and ultimately the inner wall of each invagi-
nation develop facets, and thus give rise to the compound
eye of the fly. In the larva this compound eye looks into

128

Development zvithin the Larva

the cavity of the invagination, and its concavity as well
as its deeply sunk position contrast strongly with the
convexity and exposed posijtion of the imaginal eye. The
imaginal antenna originates as a secondary duplication of
the invagination around the antennal nerve of the larva,
which duplication in all stages of growth is continued
up to the larval antenna.

Fig. 99. — Formation of imaginal head in larva (male). A. The now epidermis
thrown into folds, which have been cut away in places. B. The same parts in
horizontal section. i!c, larval cuticle, t./, transverse fold. t.f\ iipper wall of
ditto, ep, epidermis. «i, cut edge of now epidermis, ant, larval antinna.
a.rj, nerve to ditto. ant\ antenna of ily. l.f, longitudinal fold. 0, eye of fly.
on, optic nerve, o.w', root of antennary nerve. 6r, brain, oss, oesophagus.
6, enlarged second joint (bulb) of antenna of fly. s, s, s', blood-spaces. (From
Miall's Natural History of Aquatic Insects, after Miall and Hammond, 1892)

In larvae which are not far from pupation, the folds
are no longer confined to the region of the head. They
extend backwards into the prothorax. and the part which
forms the compound eyes comes to lie wholly behind the
larval head. This backward extension is not brought

Imaginal Folds of Head 129

about by any infolding of the epidermis of the dorsal
surface of the prothorax, for the folds, though they lie
deep in the prothorax, belong to the larval head exclu-
sively. Weismann has shown that in Corethra the
integument of the head of the fly is formed from the
epidermis of the larval head, and the same thing is true
of Chironomus, though here the cephalic invaginations
are deeper and more complicated. Their backward pro-
longation is facilitated by a transverse fold which runs
back from the junction of the larval head and prothorax,
and is overarched by the uninterrupted epidermis of the
latter. But for this transverse fold, it would not have
been easy for the longitudinal folds to extend into the
prothorax without implicating the prothoracic epidermis.
The transverse fold is derived from the epidermis at the
junction of the head with the thorax, and forms a sort
of pocket, crescentic in transverse section, and tapering
behind. The enclosed space is very inconsiderable, and
appears in sections like a thin slit (fig. 98). The pro-
thoracic prolongations of the longitudinal folds, whicli
give rise to the compound eyes and antennae of the fl3^
open into the floor of the transverse fold.

As the longitudinal folds gradually deepen, the antennae
of the fly, still enclosed within the pupal skin, grow at the
same rate. Their basal parts recede further and further
into the thorax, remaining all the time attached to the wall
of the longitudinal invaginations already formed. The tip
of the imaginal antenna is never withdrawn from the short
larval antenna, which it is destined to replace. If we
suppose a cloth to be spread out between two rails, then
a hand grasping the cloth at one place may be made to push
downwards and backwards until both hand and arm
become buried in a deep fold. The fist will correspond
to the bulb of the antenna, the arm to its shaft, and the
fold in the cloth to the longitudinal invagination. This

130 Development ivithin the Larva

rude model will also show how it becomes necessary to
introduce a transverse fold if the longitudinal fold is
to extend beneath an undisturbed surface of cloth or
epidermis. In all stages of larval growth the imaginal
antenna^ encloses the larval antennary nerve, the invagi-
nation being, in fact, formed about the nerve, but in the
pupa this nerve becomes no longer traceable, and new
structures appear to take its place.
Difference The proportions of the male and female head differ
imJ^inai materially in the adult fly. In the male the antennary
[n maiT*^ bulbs are larger and closer together than in the female,
and female, rpj^-^ (jifference is already apparent in the antennary
invaginations of the larva. We have found it possible
to determine with certainty the sex of living larvae by
observation of tlie form of the incipient generative organs.
Having marked several specimens as male or female, we
have cut sections through the growing heads of the larvae
so marked. In the female the invaginations are wider
apart, and the antennary bulb projects from the inner
wall into the interior of the invagination. In the male
the invaginations are so close that they almost or actually
touch behind, and the antennary bulbs are at first con-
nected with their posterior extremities. As the develop-
ment of the imaginal head advances, the antennary bulb,
even in the male, becomes to a great extent internal
(i.e. adjoining the middle line) rather than posterior.
In this stage it may be distinguished from that of the
female by its larger size, and by its extending backwards
up to, and even a little beyond, the hindermost extremity
of the compound eye, which it never does in the female ^.

1 We do not at present distinguish between the imaginal and the pupal
antenna.

2 Ratzeburg, Reinhard, Packard, and Bugnion have remarked that in
many Hymenoptera, but not in Tenthredinidae, the compound eyes of the
imago form within the larval prothorax. Bugnion says that in Eneyrtua
the larval cephalic ganglia lie nut in the head, but in the prothorax.

Formation of Nezv Mouth-parts 131

Simultaneously with, tlie formation of the compound Formation
eyes and the imaginal antennae, new mouth-parts are mcutii-
developed. As in Corethra. they develop within those ^'^'^ ^"
of the larva. On either side of the salivary ducts and
their common opening into the mouth, the epidermis of
the larval head becomes infolded, and the pouches ulti-
mately extend backwards to the back of the head. From
the inner side of each pouch, and close to its hinder
extremity, a secondary invagination pushes forwards
and downwards, and this ultimately gives rise to the
labella ^ of the fly. In larvae ready to change into
pupae the tips of the labellae are bent inwards, towards
each other, at a right angle. The invagination for the
maxillary palp forms on the side of the larval head.
The mouth of the primary fold is at first nearly equi-
distant from the larval maxillae and the occiput. The
secondary forward-directed fold is long and narrow, and
extends from the back of the head into the larval maxilla.
As it lengthens it becomes coiled, and much resembles
one of the developing imaginal legs. The new parts
thus formed are those of the pupa, and the imaginal
rudiments are enclosed within them. The pupal integu-
ment of the head, like that of some other parts of the
body, recedes considerably from the larval cuticle, and
the imaginal integument recedes again from that of the
pupa, so that in sections of the pupal head a tolerably
wide space separates the mouth-parts of the fly from the
empty cuticle which represents the corresponding organs
of the pupa.

The history of the invaginations which give rise to Early

stages of
These authors seem to think that part of the larval prothorax is, so to fbldf.^"*
speak, annexed by the imnginal head. It is desirable to inquire whether
their observations do not admit of the same explanation that we have
given in tlie case of Chironomus.

1 The lateral halves of the labium, which become fice distally. See
Meinert, 1881, or Dimmock, 1881.

K 2

132 Development zvitJiin the Larva

the head of the fly can be followed in a series of larvae
of different ages. They are not to be discovered even in
a rudimentary state until after the last larval moult ^
Weismann - has given reasons for supposing that inva-
ginated imaginal rudiments could not come into existence
before the last larval moult in an insect whose life-history
resembles that of Corethra or Chironomus. If the epi-
dermis were invaginated in any stage before the ante-
pupal one, the new cuticle, moulded closely upon the
epidermis, would become invaginated also, and would
appear at the next moult with projecting appendages
like those of a pupa or imago. This is actually the way
in which the wings are developed in some larval insects
Avith incomplete metamorphosis. In Muscidae the inva-
ginations for the head of the imago have been traced
back to the embryo within the egg. but the almost total
subsequent separation of the disks from the epidermis
renders their development independent of the growth
of the larval cuticle and of the moults that probably take
place therein '^

Very soon after the last larval moult, when the
Chironomus-larva is about half an inch long, the first
indications of the invaginations can be discovered by
means of sections. They form rapidly, and among larvae
quite similar in size and outward appearance some are
found to exhibit tolerably advanced invaginations, while
others do not possess even the rudiments of such struc-
tures. In an early stage the invaginations are restricted

' There are probably four larval moults in Chironomus, as in Corethra,
but the burrowing habits of the insect render it difficult to be quite
certain of the exact number.

"^ 1866, p. 115.

' Leuckart and Weismann have inferred the occurrence of at least two
moults in the larva of the blow-fly, from the changes observed in the
stigmata and the hooks. Weismann (1863) suspects that as many as four
moults may take place (p. 104).

Later Stages 133

to the larval head, and form comparatively simple paired
folds of the dorsal epidermis (fig. 97). Behind and on
the ventral side is a short extension, which will subse-
quently give rise to the compound eye and the antennary
bulb. K's, the invaginations do not as yet extend into the
thorax, the transverse fold described above is wholly
wanting. In this early condition the invaginations of
Chironomus are essentially similar to those of Corethra
at the time of their fullest development.

The prolongation of the cephalic invaginations into Later
the thorax gradually advances as the larva is nearing ^ ^^^^'
the time of pupation. The formation of the transverse
fold already described is a necessary consequence. This
fold may be regarded as an exaggeration of the slight fold
which in so many insects forms in the new cuticle and
epidermis at the junction of the head and thorax, as well
as between other segments of the body shortly before
a moult. While the backward extension of the invagina-
tions is taking place considerable histological differen-
tiation is in progress, and some change takes place in
the form of the future sense-organs. The compound eye
forms at first a vertical layer, not far from flat, occupying
the outer wall of the invagination. Later on, the facets
extend round the much bent floor of the cavity, and reach
to a certain height upon the inner wall (fig. gg). The
antenna also undergoes, especially in the male, a con-
siderable change of form. At first the bulb is posterior,
and the shaft takes a nearly straight course to the
larval antenna, within which its ti]3 is included ; subse-
quently the bulb becomes internal, and the shaft is arched
upwards in a bend of gradually increasing sharpness

(fig- 95)-

The parts of the head, thus formed within the larva, Eversim
assume their final position by a process of eversion
(turning inside out) which can be observed when the

134 Development within the Larva

Compari-
son -with
otlier
Dipterous
insects.

Possible
motive of
invagina-
tions.

larva changes to a pupa. This is more fully described
in the next chapter (p. 138).

Comparison with allied insects shows that the forma-
tion of a new head is not accomplished in the same way
in all Diptera. In a gnat the invaginations are shallow,
and the comjDOund eyes and antennae form within the larval
head, though the base of the new antenna is telescoped
into the head, and its shaft becomes folded. In Corethra
the same process is carried a little further. Chirononius
dorsalis comes next in the series, while in the Muscidae
we reach the maximum of complexity. The invaginations
are deep, and apparently, though not really, unconnected
with the larval epidermis. In the Muscid pupa the epi-
dermis, the muscles, the intestinal epithelium, and even
a great part of the nervous system are regenerated ; the
old tissues are devoured by j^hagocytes, and only nests
of cells persist as rudiments from which the new organs
are developed.

Chironomus furnishes a ^particularly accessible and
easily understood case of the development of what is
practicall}^ a new head within the larva. When we
inquire, as we cannot help doing, why the new head
should be formed by imaginal folds in the thorax of the
larva, the obvious tacts suggest themselves that the head
of the fly is utterly unlike the larval head in shape and
that it is of larger size. The lengths are as twelve (male
fly) to eleven (larva) ; the breadths as five (male fly) to
three (larva). As a mere matter of dimensions, such
a head as that of the male fly of Chironomus could not
be developed within the larval head. This explanation
at once provokes a further question : AVhy should any
such disproj^ortion exist between the head of the fly and
that of the larva ? "VVe may say in reply that the fly is
a nimble aerial insect, requiring keen senses and some
degree of intelligence that it may escape danger, find

Variations 135

a mate, and lay its eggs in a suitable position. The larva,
on the contrary, is an animal of very simple mode of life,
feeding upon dead vegetable matter at the bottom of dark
and slow streams. The abundance of its food, and the
ease with which it can be appropriated, have led in this,
as in many other cases, to some degree of degeneration
which is particularly apparent in the larval limbs and
head ^ We have already pointed out (p. 30) that the
brain must be removed to the prothorax in an insect
whose imaginal head develops in the prothorax, and that
this shifting of the brain would naturally lead to further
reduction of the larval head.

We find that within the family Chironomidae there variations
are considerable variations in the mode of formation of
the imaginal head. Thus in a large Chironomus-larva,
of which we have not been able to procure the flj^, the
compound eyes are restricted, even in a la.te stage of
formation, to the larval head. It is noteworthy that
in this larva the head is much larger than in C. dorsalis.
In some Tanypus- larvae the same thing has been found.
In other Chironomus-larvae the compound eyes, just
before pupation, lie half in and half out of the larval
head, and here too the head is larger than in C. dorsalis.

While the testes, sperm-ducts, and their contents are Deveiop-

, . • J. • ment of re-

undergomg development, a paired ventral invagination productive
forms in the last abdominal segment of the larva. This *"'^**°'-
soon becomes double and lengthens greatly, bending first
forward, then backward, and lastly again forward. From
it are derived the paired ejaculatory ducts (ducts of
Herold). They are the ectadenes (i. e. ectodermal glands)
of Escherich, who distinguishes glandular mesodermal
outgrowths, e. g. outgrowths from the sperm-ducts, by the

' W^e have to thank the Linnean Society for permission to extract part
of our paper of 1892, and to copy several figures from the illustrated
plates.

136 Development within the Larva

term mesadenes (mesodermal glands) '. Near tlie posterior
border of the penultimate segment, tlie extremities of the

Fig. icxi. — Vontral surface of eleventh and twelfth segments
of male larva, showing the rudiments of the genital ducts, the
muscles of the anal feet, and the ventral blood-gills, r, anterior
genital rudiment, r', posterior ditto. From living larva.

ejaculatory ducts come into contact with the backward
extensions of the sperm-ducts, which have reached this

Ficj 101. — Rudiment of
ejaculatory duct, from
living larva.

Fio. 102. — Developing ejaculatory duct of
male from larva. More advanced than fig.
i(w. The line + + shows the plane of the
section in fig. 88. r, rudiment in the eleventh
segment. »•', ditto in the twelfth segment.
d, ejaculatory duct, v, vesicula seminalis?
i, intestine hg, blood-gill indicated by two
nearly parallel lines. From living larva.

point. Here an anterior genital rudiment apj)ears to

' Eschericli, 1894.

Development of Reproductive Organs 137

occupy a position on the ventral surface of the larva
exactly corresponding to that of the rudiment which in
the female gives rise to the seminal receptacles, but the
connexion of the supposed anterior genital rudiment
with the male ducts has not been satisfactorily ascer-
tained, and is somewhat difficult to understand.

Fig. 103. — Develojjment of female
organs within tlie larva a^ seen in the
eleventh and twelfth segments (side
view), r, rudiment of spermatheca.
r', rudiment of gluten-gland. From
living larva.

Fig. 104. — Development of
female organs within the
larva. More advanced than
fig. 103. )•, rudiment of spei'-
matheca. r', rudiment of
gluten-gland. u, vulva.

From living larva.

The female reproductive appendages develop within
the larva as thickenings and invaginations of the ventral
epidermis. From rudiments in the eleventh segment are
derived the spermathecae, while a similar ingrowth in the
twelfth segment gives rise to the unpaired gluten-gland.

CHAPTER V

THE PUPA OF CHIRONOMUS

The pro- Larvae about to Undergo pupation can be easily

pupation, distinguisliecl by tlie tbickened tborax. If a number of
such larvae are observed continuously for a few liours.
the process of pupation can be studied without serious
difficulty. The first distinct sign of change is the
retraction of the epidermis and soft parts from the old
cuticle of the prothoracic feet. Very shortly after this
(about a minute) the same process -takes place in the
blood-gills, and a little later in the anal feet. After
a further interval of a few seconds, or at most a minute
or two, the head and thorax of the pupa protrude from
the dorsal surface, between the larval head and prothorax.
The larval head, which has been emptied by the retrac-
tion of its contents, then slips round to the ventral surface.
The order of these events is not quite constant. Now
and then the anal feet and other posterior appendages
are seen to be unchanged in a larva which has already
slipped off the larval head, Imt this is unusual. It is
probable that the contraction of the thoracic and anal
regions sets up a blood-pressure, which is the immediate
agent in the protrusion of the puj^al head. An inde-
pendent indication of the existence of such blood-pressure
at the time of pupation is given by the occasional escape
of a large quantity of blood, which fills the space between

Characteristic Pupal Organs 139

the old cuticle and tlie retracted epidermis. In such
cases we have found that the pupa dies within a short
time. The complete removal of the larval cuticle from
the body is a matter of time, and may occupy several
hours. The old cuticle becomes much A\Tinkled, and is
ultimatel}^ torn into shreds, being gradually rubbed off
by the almost incessant movements of the pupa. Occa-
sionally the larval skin is still adherent to the pupa when
the fly emerges.

Sections taken through the pupal head a little after the
time of change illustrate the e version of the imaginal
head. The compound eyes, which were deeply invaginated,
become bit by bit convex, by progressive eversion of the
folds. During the process they are drawn downwards
and backwards, so that they get behind and beneath the
bases of the antennae. The morphologically external
surface of the eyes, which was j)reviously turned inwards,
now looks outwards ; the optic nerve, which was distri-
buted to the temporarily convex surface, still takes its
course to the same surface, now concave ; and the walls
of the head, for the first time since the first larval moult,
enclose the brain.

It will be understood from the history of its develop- cimracter-
ment that the pupa of Chironomus is structurally little organs,
more than the fly enclosed in a temporary skin. The
compound eyes and antennae, the mouth-parts, legs, and
wings of the fly are all there, complete in outward form,
and usually exhibiting on microscopic examination all
the histological detail of the same organs in their active
condition. The only structures peculiar to the pupa
seem to be the prothoracic respiratory appendages or
tracheal gills, and the fin-like expansions of the abdomen
(Plate, figs. 5, 6).

A pair of conical prominences are borne on the top
of the pupal head ; they enclose a pair of imaginal

140

The Pupa of CJiironorniis

Legs and
wings.

prominences (fig. 105). In Clilronomus nivelpennis each
of tliese pupal prominences bears a long seta (see p. 14).

The legs of the pupa are doubled up in the manner
shown in Plate, fig. 5. Short-legged Dipterous pupae have

Fig. 105. — Imaginal head, still enclosed in pupal
skin (male), front view, p, processes on vertex
of pupa, enclosing p', processes on vertex of fly.
6, enlarged second joint of antenna of fly. o, com-
pound eye. Ip, tip of labial palp, r, rostrum.
lb, labiuni, rt, antenna. Of. fig. 63.

Pupal
abdonion.

the legs extended. Legs, wings, and antennae have their
own pupal sheaths, which fit closely, and are not glued

to the body. The
pupal wing is of
simple outline, and
much smaller than
that of the fly, which
is crumpled up with-
in it. The haltere is relatively larger and more wing-like
in the pupa than in the fly.

The pupal skin which invests the abdomen of the fly is
expanded laterally into paired flanges, which are fringed

Pig. 106. — Foot of fly in pupal cuticle

Pupal Tracheal System

141

with long setae. In some species the pupa has claw- like
projections on the sides of the abdominal segments, a pair
to each segment. In pupae of the plamosus section the
flanges of the last abdominal segment are furnished with
very long setae, and constitute a tail-fin (Plate, figs. 5, 6).
The laterally expanded abdomen acts powerfully on the
water in the incessant movements of flexion and exten-
sion, and drives it in a continual stream through the tube,
in which, under normal circumstances, the pupal stage is
passed.

The pupa aerates its tissues by means of tracheal gills Pupai
and a system of air- tubes. system.

The tracheal gill of the pupa forms in the hinder part

Fig. 107. — Wing and haltere of fly, enclDsed in their papal sheaths.

of the larval prothorax. This might not of itself prove
that it is truly prothoracic, since pupal and imaginal
structures characteristic of a particular segment may
form within a larval segment which does not occupy
the same place in the series. The best proof that the
tracheal gill is really prothoracic seems to be furnished
b}^ the following observations : — The larval skin was
removed from a larva nearly ready to pupate (fig. 108).
A well-marked transverse line was then seen, which
apparently marked the junction of two segments. By
a simple dissection with needles the longitudinal meso-
thoracic muscles were traced precisely to this line, and
no further. It thus became clear that the line marks the

142

The Pupa of Chironomus

boundary between the pro- and mesothorax. The tra-
cheal gill was clearly seen in front of the line, while the

Fig. 108. — Dorsal views of the thorax of a late larva, showing the
position of the paired bases of tlie tracheal gills of the pupa just in
front of the strong transverse line that separates the pro- from the
mesothoiax. In tlie right figure the larval skin has been removed,
except from the head, so that the wings are suffered to expand.
The prothorax here has suffered some degree of contraction.

anterior or mesothoracic spiracle of the imago lies in the
line.

The tracheal gill branches primarily into a larger
anterior lobe and two posterior bifid lobes. These again
1

F16. 109. — I, tracheal gill of pupa and adjoining fore-leg in side view,
as seen through larval skin. 2, filaments of tracheal gill, x 350.

become divided into numerous long filaments, which float
freely in the water (Plate, figs. 5, 6). A stiff cylindrical

Pupal Tracheal System 143

stem, slightly flattened, supports the base of the gill, and
gives passage to a multitude of fine tracheae.

When the pupal skin is cast, two sets of branching
tracheal tubes are found attached, one to its superficial and
one to its deep surface, in the region of the tracheal gill.
Those on the superficial face ]3ass through the stem into
the gill ; those on the deep face are withdrawn from the
tracheal system of the fly, which forms outside that of
the jDupa in the same way that this formed outside that
of the larva. While one set of tracheae is withdrawn
from the anterior spiracle of the fly, another much smaller
set, further back, is withdrawn from the posterior or
metathoracic spiracle.

The cast pupal skin in the prothorax and fore part of
the mesothorax is marked by three scars, nearly in a line.
The uppermost scar, which is also in front of the others,
is oval and has a sieve-like apjiearance, which we are
unable to explain. Next comes the base of the tracheal
gill, fringed by innumerable broken tubes. Last and
lowest is a pit-like depression of the pupal skin, which
looks rather like a pupal spiracle, though we believe that
it is impervious ; it is in close relation to the imaginal
spiracle beneath (fig. iii), and the pupal tracheae are
withdrawn at this point.

In the abdomen of the pupa a pair of narrow longi-
tudinal tracheae can be traced, which are placed in com-
munication with impervious spiracles by minute initial
branches. One spiracle lies near the middle of the second
abdominal segment ; the rest in the fore part of each of
the segments from the third to the seventh inclusive.

The tracheal system of the pupa is larger and more
continuous than that of the larva. Sections through the
thorax now show a double wall in all the larger tracheae,
the outer being the imaginal structure, while the inner
is the comparatively narrow pupal trachea.

144

TJic Pupa of Cliii'ojwmus

The castinj
of the
tracheal
mil.

The brandies of the longitudinal tracheae which pass
to the tracheal gill take origin near together, and are at
first tortuous and crowded. They soon break up, nearly
at the same level, into a multitude of much smaller tubes,
which run parallel to one another up to and through the
stem of the gill, and then break dichotomouslv into still

Fig. no. — Termiiiatinn of filament of tracheal gill of pnpa. with
tracheae euclosed.

liner branches, which pass along the tubules of the gill.
Beyond the common stem the tracheae branch with the
containine: tubules until the ultimate tubules are reached;

Fig. hi.— Sagittal section of ptipa, passing through base of tracheal
gill and mesothoracic spiracle, ps, pupal skin, sp, mesothoracio
spiracle of fly. tr, large trachea, cs, chitinous septa at base of tracheal
gill, tg, tracheal gill.

the tracheae then branch independently, so that one
tubule may contain several tracheal branches.

Within the stem of the gill the tracheae are supported
bj' chitinous septa, which are easily distinguished in
sections by their solidity and well-marked colouration.

The Casting of the Tracheal Gill 145

The septa begin at the base of the stem, and die away
gradually upwards. Between the tortuous tracheae
within the thorax, and the strong chitinous septa, extend
a number of straight, parallel, and relatively weak
tubes (fig. III).

It is here that the tracheae are ruptured wdien the
pupal cuticle is about to be cast. The vigorous contrac-
tions of the body exert a pull upon the tracheae, which
break across just where the abnijjt change to the chitinous
septa takes place, and the tracheal gill comes off with the
pupal skin. After the separation a number of short
threads (the broken ends of the tracheae) are seen to
project from the chitinous septa. This provision for
securing a clean fracture without undue violence reminds
us of the process by which an autumn leaf is detached
from the twig^. The sudden change in the strength of
the chitinous septa is in itself a cause of weakness ; the
base of the gill is weaker than if its tracheae were not
strengthened at all.

Just behind the common stem of the gill the anterior
spiracle of the fly is formed, which opens to the air as
soon as the pupal cuticle is removed.

The separation of the tracheal gill would seem likely
to leave openings by w^hich air could enter or leave the
tracheal system of the fly. Such openings, which would
be naturally incapable of regulation, would destroy the
efficiency of the tracheal apparatus, for air can only be
forced into the finer branches by closing all the outlets,
and then compressing the main trunks. The torn ends
of the tracheae are, how^ever, quickly sealed up. The
tubes themselves collapse, while their generating epithe-
lium, which, it will be observed, is an extension inwards

* In a pupa which had just cast the larval skin no inequality in the
chitinous septa could be discovered. The generating cells, which secrete
the thickenings and plug up the outlets, were plainly seen in this st^iige.

MIALL. L

146 The Pupa of Chironomus

of tlie cuticle- secreting epidermis, resumes its activity.
The cells multiply and enlarge, form a layer over the
scar, and secrete new cuticle. In a few hours the only
external indication of the place where a tracheal gill
once projected is an oval scar, which is easily seen on
the thorax of the fly (fig. 72).

We have already remarked (p. 10) that there is
a section of Chironomus (the motitator group of Meinert)
in which the pupa is provided, not with bunches of
» filaments, but with a pair of trumpets.

Papal Sedentary aquatic pupae, which are unable to come

fr^^n^oT'^ to the surface of the water, may be provided with
other branched and filamentous gills like those of Chironomus

Nemoccra. (^plumoisus sectiou) or Simulium. Free aquatic pupae are
able to float at the surface without effort, and are com-
monly provided with respiratory trumpets, whose tips
just reach the surface of the water when the pupa is at
rest. The trumpets, instead of a single orifice, may have
a row of small holes ; in particular cases the passage is
closed by a thin membrane. The respiratory trumpet of
the pupae of Culex, Corethra, certain species of Chiro-
nomus, &c., is perhaps the equivalent of the common stem
of the pupal tracheal gill of Chironomus dorsalis, &c.
The numerous holes in which the trumpet of the Dicra-
nota-puj)a ends may perhaj^s correspond to the short
tubes which in Chironomus dorsalis lead from the
tracheal trunk to the tracheal gill of the pupa (see p. 144).
The pupal trumpets are very long and slender in some
species of Limnophila ; one of the pair is longer than the
body in Ptychoptera and Bittacomorpha. In Ptycho23tera
they exhibit a very peculiar and interesting structured

Provision On the dorsal surface of the pupal thorax an inter-
^or^e^cape ^^.^^^^^^ median white line may be seen, and on either
side of it a curved line of similar character (fig. 112).
Along these lines the integument is slightly sunk, and
thinner than elsewhere, while the close-set cuticular hairs,
so prominent elsewhere, disappear. These hairs are pro-

' Grobben, 1875 ; Miall, 1895.

Changes in the Alimentary Canal 147

bably casting-liairs, and facilitate the separation of the
pupa from the larval skin, within which it was formed.
"We believe that the median line marks the place where
the pupal thorax splits to allow of the escape of the fly,
and that the lateral lines constitute, so to speak, the
hinges on which a pair of flaps bend downwards and

outwards, to enlarge the
opening. These lines of
weakness, prepared long
in advance, facilitate the
escape of the fly, and help
to explain the wonderful
speed with which it is
accomplished (see p. 6).

The mode of life of the
pupa and the extrication
of the fly have already
been described (p. 8).

Shortly before pupation changes
the alimentary canal un- alimentary

T 111 canal,

dergoes marked changes.
The epithelium of the

Fig 112. — Dorsal surface of pupal gtomach bcCOmeS Stripped,
thorax and anterior abdominal segments. . , . ,

The tracheal gills and wings are seen on and large maSSCS, lU wllich
the sides. Between the tracheal gills a

median and two curved lateral lines shruuk nuclei are Stlll ap-
appear, which in the fresh pupa are ■ t • xi -j.

white upon a dark ground. The median parent, lie lU tUC CaVlty
line indicates the cleft by which the fly r. \ j-T, * A^r^r. ^r^\-

will escape ; along the lateral lines the (tig. IlSJi tUlS QOCS UOt

pupal integLiment is thin and flexible, , , -.-.l^^p „„„„„^},p,,p ^^-,A

and bends downwards and outwards to take piaCC every WnClC ailQ

enlarge the cleft. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ beginning

and end of the stomach the epithelium persists for
a time, but in a shrank and probably functionless con-
dition. The stomach of a late pupa or a fly contains
hardly a trace of epithelium ; its wall consists merely
of muscular tissue and basement-membrane. A similar
stripping of the epithelium of the mesenteron has been

L 2

148

The Pupa of Chironomus

described in many insects 1. The cast basement-mem-
brane, or ' cyst,' observed in some other insects, .was not
found in Chironomus.

The changes which take place are not wholly destruc-
tive. In the oesoi^ha.i^us of the larva the epithelium is so
thin as to require pains to make it evident, and even with
careful staining and high powers we rarely see anything
more than regularly spaced and minute nuclei. But in
the pupa a relatively thick epithelium with large nuclei

Fio. 1 1 ^ —Stripped epithelium, from stomach of pupa. Tlio left-hand
figure shows scattered cells and nuclei ; the riglit-hand one the more
Tisual aijpearance of a coherent mass.

is often conspicuous in sections (fig. 114). AVe have not
discovered how it is regenerated.

Just above the junction of the oesophagus with the
stomach a hollow lateral outgrowth forms on one side.
shortly before pupation. It grows fast, and soon takes
the form of a ventral diverticulum (fig. 114). This is

' Weism;inii. 1863; Kowalewsky, 1887, aiul authors there quoted;
Rengcl, 1896.

Changes in the Alimentary Canal 149

CES.ep.

Fii!. 114. — Sagittal section of fore-part of pupal alimentary
canal. oes.ep, regenerated epithelium of stomodaeum. div,
diverticulum or sucking stomach.

Fig. 115. — Transverse section of diverticulum or rudimentary sucking
stomach of pupa, s, epithelium of stomacli, not yet broken up in this
region. <7, cavity of diverticuhim.

150 The Pupa of Chtronomus

narrow and pointed behind; it extends to the end of
tlie metatliorax, the oesophagus having now contracted
so much that the cardiac end of the stomach is close to
the head, from which it is separated only by the length
of the greatly reduced prothorax. The diverticulum is
an outgrowth of the oesophagus, and probably repre-
sents the sucking stomach or honey-bag of some winged
Diptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera.
It has a distinct epithelium with small nuclei, a rather
thick muscular wall, and, like the oesophagus itself in
this stage, secretes no chitinous intima. The cavity,
which is at first conspicuous but not large, never contains
food ; it shrinks rather rapidly, and in the late pupa is
nearly obliterated, the epithelium being then irregularly
folded, and in course of disintegration.
The two The tube-dwelling Chironomus-larvae are distinguished

Chirono- from the surface larvae by a number of adaptive charac-
^Tpupir ters, so marked that it is a matter for surprise to find that
contrasted. |^^^-j^ groups cau be compriscd within one genus. The
tube-dwelling larvae usually have red blood, four ventral
and four anal blood-gills, and vestigial tracheae, reduced
to two almost independent intersegmental systems. The
pupa is furnished with tracheal gills on the prothorax.
The larval head is usually small, and the invaginations
for the compound eyes and antennae often extend far
into the prothorax, where the larval brain is situated.
In the surface larvae, on the other hand, the blood has
rarely any red colour ; the ventral blood-gills at least are
wanting ; the tracheal system may extend throughout
the whole length of the body, its various parts being-
connected by longitudinal trunks of fair capacity. The
pupa has prothoracic trumpets in place of tracheal gills.
The larval head is sometimes decidedly larger in propor-
tion to the body than in the other group ; the invaginations
for the compound eyes and antennae are therefore shorter,

Pupal Stage in Insects generally 151

and it is possible, tliough we liave not actually noted such
a case, that the brain may sometimes be lodged within
the larval head. It seems probable that Chironomus is
less primitive than Tipula and some other Nemocera
whose early stages are terrestrial. The species of Chiro-
nomus whose larvae dwell at the bottom of the water and
make tubes appear to be less primitive than the surface -
haunting species.

It must not be forgotten that of the many species
of Chironomus only a minute proportion have had their
life-history in any degree elucidated. Increased know-
ledge will no doubt greatly add to the list of adaptive
modifications of the larval and pupal structures.

The biological importance of the pupal stage is very The pupal
unequal in different insects. Some undergo no trans- insfcts"
formation at all (Thysanura). In Orthoptera the so-called s*""^''^^'-^'-
pupa is little more than a late larva with rudimentary
wings. Where the larva is aquatic and the fly aerial, as
in may-flies and dragon- flies, more conspicuous changes
are effected during transformation, especially in the mode
of respiration, but there is not of necessity a definite rest-
ing- stage. Where, as in Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and
Diptera, the imago adopts a new mode of feeding, great
and apparently sudden changes in the mouth-parts are
set up, and the jDupa ceases to feed, though it may still
retain, as in Chironomus, a limited power of movement.
In the Muscidae the divergence of the fly from the larva
reaches its extreme. The body is reconstructed during
the pupal stage, and the immobility of the pupa is ren-
dered complete by its enclosure within the hard and dead
larval skin. The gradations observed in existing insects
with respect to the completeness of their transformation
help us to understand that the elaborate metamorphosis
of the Muscidae was attained by many steps. The stages
by which holometabolous insects acquired their pupa are

152 The Pupa of Cliirouonins

still extant, and tliose naturalists who consider such
a series as this : — fi) Thysanura ; (2) any locust ; (3) any
dragon-fly or may -fly ; (4) Chironomus ; (5) Muscidae —
will probably admit that the transformation of insects
does not agree either in motive or in its relation to the
rest of the life-history with the embryonic transformation
of most marine invertebrates. The transformation of an
insect, like that of a frog, is an adaJt transformation ^

' Miall find Donny, 1886, pp. 196-203; Miall, Nature, Dec. 19, 1895;
Address to Section D of Brit. Assoc, 1897 ; Boas, Zoul. Jahrb., Bd. xii,
385-402 (i899\

CHAPTER VI

THE EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHIRONOMUS

The process of egg-la^dng has already been described e^^-
(p. 9). In C. dorsalis the egg-mass is a transparent

Fig. 116 — Egg-masses of Chirononius. A, egg- rope of C. dorsalis,
divided into sections, to show both sides. B, twisted fibres, wliich
traverse the egg-rope. C, egg-mass of another species of Chirouomus.
/J, egg-mass of a third species. E, part of the last, more highly magni-
fied. t\ developing eggs in two stages. (From Miall's Natural Hhtorij
0/ Aquatic Insects.)

cylinder with rounded ends, about 2 cm. long, formed
of a mucilage secreted by the gluten-gland, in which the

154 Embryonic Development of Chironomns

brownish eggs are embedded. The eggs do not lie at
random in the cylinder, but are lodged in a special
winding tube or egg-pipe, which lies near the surface
of the egg-mass, and makes many almost complete spires,
curving round from right to left and from left to right
alternately. The tube itself only becomes visible when
the egg-mass is boiled or treated with hardening agents.
The interior of the cylinder is traversed by interwoven
cords, which are more fully described on p. 155. As
many as nineteen spires have been counted on one egg-
mass, and since each spire commonly contains about
forty-five eggs, the total may amount to 850 or even
more ' .

The various forms of egg- rope which characterize dif-
ferent species of Chiron omus reach a climax of complication
in C. dorsalis. In simpler cases the eggs may be enclosed
in a globular or pear-shaped gelatinous mass, which is
glued to a stone in the bed of a stream (fig. 116). Or the
eggs may lie, almost at random, within a gelatinous pipe.
Both a pipe, enclosing the eggs, and an outer gelatinous
envelope may be present, and the pipe may be thrown
into bends or spires which do not affect the outer cover-
ing. Lastly, a pair of interwoven cords may be added,
which traverse the cylinder, on whose outer wall lie the
spires of the egg-containing jDipe. The egg-mass may
contain three different kinds of gelatinous substance, one
forming the pipe, a second the general investment, a third
the interwoven cords. The two latter may be furnished
by the gluten-gland, whose cavity when cut across shows
sectors of what are probably two different secretions
(fig. 84) ; the wall of the egg-pipe is perhaps secreted
by the ovary or oviduct.

Since the larvae which issue from the eggs have to

' In seven egg-chains (ho numbei" of eggs was estimated at 668, 784.
817, 818, 828, 912, and II03.

Egg-masses 155

live iu water, it is convenient that tlie egg-chains should
be laid in water, and further that they should float at the
surface, where they can be freely supplied with air, and
run no risk of being smothered by silt or organic refuse.
If the water were stagnant, the eggs might float free, as
the egg-raft of the gnat does, but the eggs of Chironomus
dor sails are laid in slow streams, and must be secured,
lest they should be swept away, and perhaps lodged in
some unsuitable place, or even carried out to sea. The
eggs of this species are therefore invested by a gelati-
nous envelope, which swells out, the moment it touches
the water, into an abundant transparent mucilage, and
the whole mass is moored to some fixed object by twisted
cords. The mucilage has its special uses : it makes the
egg-mass slippery, so that birds or insects cannot grasp
it : moreover, it spaces the eggs, so that each is well
exposed to the sunlight and air ; lastly, it keeps oft' the
attacks of the water-moulds (Chytrideae and allied Oomy-
cetes), which abound in water and on the surface of
decaying plants, or devour the substance of living insects
and fishes. It may be that the mucilage of the egg- mass
has some antiseptic property, for it remains unchanged
by parasitic growth or putrefaction long after the eggs
have hatched out.

During the summer months the egg-masses of Cliiro-
nomus dorsalis are readily found. It is not indeed easy to
detect them on the weedy bank of a stream, but the fly
often lays them on the edge of a stone fountain, or in
a watering trough by the side of a road. If an egg-mass
is dipped into boiling water, the way in which it is moored
becomes evident. An enclosed double cord, previously
invisible, now becomes opaque enough to be examined by
a lens (fig. 1 16, B). It passes through the cylinder in a series
of loops, and then returns in as many reversed and inter-
twined loops, so as to give the appearance of a lock-stitch.

156 Embryonic Development of Chironomiis

Facilities
for sti^dy.

Writers
on the
develop-
ment ol'
Chiro-
nomns.

The cord is so tough, that it can be stretched with a pair
of needles without breaking. A steady pull at the ends
of the cylinder will draw it out to nearly twice its original
length without injury ; if stretched beyond this point, the
cord becomes strained, and does not perfectly recover its
shape when released. The ends of the cord pass into an
adhesive disk, which is attached at the surface of the
water. Thus the whole mass, containing hundreds of
eggs, is firmly moored, yet so moored that it floats with-
out strain^, and rises or falls with the level of the water.
The eggs get all the sun and air which they require, and
neither predatory insects, nor birds, nor water-moulds,
nor rushing currents can injure them.

There are few animals which afford greater facilities
than Chironomus for the study of embryonic development.
The eggs are very plentiful, and can always be had during
the summer months ; they are so transparent as to admit
of the use of fairly high powers of the microscope ; and
since they require no preparation for study as whole
objects, they can be replaced in water after inspection, to
continue their development. This diminishes the diffi-
culty of ascertaining the order of the developmental
chan2:es, which is nevertheless considerable, even in Chi-
ronomus. * The development is com^^leted in six days or
less, so that every part of the process can be observed
without prolonged waiting. On the other hand, the small
size of the eggs is a serious difficulty in the preparation
of sections, and in some important respects the develop-
ment is peculiar, and not typical of insects.

"We have now three excellent accounts of the embry-
onic development of Chironomus. AVeismann (1863)
studied living or fresh embryos for his classical memoir.
It was largely upon facts drawn from the development
of Chironomus that he long afterwards based his theory
of the Continuity of the Germ-plasm (1889). At the time

The Egg

157

of liis first paper AVeismami liad not ascertained the
destination of tlie ' polar globules ' of Robin, and tliouglit
that they Avere subseqnently cast out from the embryo,
at least in part. After the appearance of Metschnikoff's
account of the development of Miastor, and Balbiani's
account of the development of Chironomus, AVeismann

adopted their view that the
so-called j)olar globules are
sexual germs. Balbiani

(1885) contributed some new
and interesting particulars,
and traced the development
of the reproductive organs
from the so-called polar glo-
bules. Eitter (1890) was the
first to apply the method of
sections to the eggs of Chiro-
nomus. He gave the first
satisfactory account of the
origin of the layers of the
alimentary canal, and fur-
nished needful corrections as
to the process of egg-laying.

The egg is of elongate -oval The egg.

fpn, female ditto, pg, polar cells or form, -Q mm. (-012 in.) long,
globiilos. pr, external protoplasmic ^ ^ ^ '

and -I mm. (-004 in.) broad.

The anterior end, at which
the head of the larva Avill appear, is rather blunter than
the other, and one side is flattened. There is a trans-
parent and structureless egg-shell, which is perforated at
the anterior end by a minute micropyle for the entrance
of the spermatozoa. Within the egg-shell is a vitelliije
membrane, hardly to be seen in an undeveloped egg, but
becoming plain when the embryo shrinks, as it does in
the course of development. Almost the whole space

Fig. 117. — Egg just laid, in longitu-
diual section, mpn^ male pronucleus

layer, y, yolk. (From Ritter, i
fig- I.)

f58 Embryonic Development of Chironomus

Methods.

Fertiliza-
tion and
segmenta-
tion.

within tlie vitelline membrane is filled with a brownish
yellow 5^olk, containing a multitude of fat-globules
of various sizes (fig. 117). We can indistinctly make
out a thin superficial layer of clear protoplasm, which
becomes more evident in stained sections, where it is
seen to send out many thread-like extensions into the
yolk.

The ovarian q,^^ of the pupa or imago is enclosed
in a follicle of the egg-tube (fig. 83), which is lined, until
the eggs are almost ready to be laid, by a scanty
epithelium. The follicle in an early stage encloses
a true egg-cell, whose nucleus is the germinal vesicle,
and also several nutritive cells, which dwindle as the
yolk increases (see p. 113)-

The posterior end of the ovum is the first to pass into
the oviduct, and it is probable that Hallez' law of
orientation, viz. that the ends and faces of the ovum are
placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the parent,
obtains here as in all insects which have been investi-
gated.

In order to study the early embryonic stages to the
best advantage, special preparation is necessary. The
following method we have found to succeed : — The egg-
chain is killed with hot 30°/^ alcohol, half saturated with
corrosive sublimate. It is then gradually transferred
to absolute alcohol, and subsequently to chloroform and
melted paraffin. Sections are cut by the microtome, and
stained on the slide by Heidenhain's haematoxjdin
method. The observation of living embryos should not
be omitted, and much may be learnt by those who are
unable to prepare sections at all.

.Before fertilization the egg-nucleus travels to the
surface and divides. The two polar bodies thus formed
are not ejected, but break up within the egg. After
fertilization male and female pronuclei form in the

Formation of Blastoderm

159

usual way (fig. 117). Segmentation begins at the hinder
pole about two hours after egg-laying. A few large
nuclei appear in successive pairs at the surface of the
egg, the protoplasm gathers round each, and forms con-
stricted masses, which afterwards bud off, become free,
and divide into four and eight (figs. 118, 119). After this
the contained nuclei divide without separating, so that
when we consider the subsequent
^ history of the buds, we shall find

that they consist of eight large cells,
with four nuclei apiece. These cells
have often been colledi polar cells ov
polar globules. In view of their
ultimate destination, and to prevent
confusion with the bodies broken up
within the egg during maturation,
we may call them the sexual germs'^.
The differentiation of sexual germs
in this very early stage, before a
blastoderm has been formed, is a
phenomenon as yet observed only
in Diptera In Distomum the germ-
cells (ova ?), which give rise to
Fig. 118.— I, First forma- ^^xQ sTDorocvsts and rcdiac, are set

tion of sexual germs [sg) l j ^

and somatic nuclei (nc). anart verv carlv, at the end of

2, Later stage, both the '^ ."

sexual germs and the so- cleavage (cf. Sagitta).

matic nuclei having in- . t ,i i _, .

creased by division. (From At the time wlieil the SCXUal Formation

Hitter, 1890, «gs. 5, 6.) , ^ n ^ l^ 11 ^ of blasto-

germs become defined, the yolk con- derm,
tains several scattered nuclei, which can sometimes be

' Tlie sexual germs in the egg of Chironomus were first observed by
Robin (i862\ Weismnnn (1863) observed that they subsequently became
withdrawn into the yolk. Metschnikoff vi866) believed that in Cecido-
myia he had observed the derivation of the reproductive organs from
these germs. Balbiani (1885) traced the development of the germs into
the testes and ovaries of Chironomus. Eitter (1890) demonstrated the
validity of Balbiani's conclusions by means of thin sections.

i6o Embryonic Development of Chironomns

seen to be connected by streaks or paths of clear proto-
plasm. These nuclei are the first indications of the
somatic cells, from which the tissues of the body of
the insect will be derived. They
multiply with great rapidity, travel
towards the surface of the egg, pro-
bably accompanied by protoplasm,
and arrange themselves side by side
in the peripheral protoplasmic layer,
which bulges a little outwards over
each nucleus, but is otherwise con-
tinuous and uniform ; it is sharply
separated from the yolk within (fig.
119). This layer is the hlastoderm ;
it gives rise to the future body, and
also to certain temporary structures
connected with it. The nucleated
blastoderm aj)pears almost suddenly,
and being transparent, curved, and
refringent, it is a matter of great
difficulty to study its formation at
all closely. The nuclei are at first
few and large, but rapidly increase
in number and diminish in size.
An inner, clear, protoplasmic blas-
tema, deepest at the two poles, forms
within the blastoderm ; the invest-
ing cells extend into this, and absorb
or appropriate it, thereby doubling

Fio. 119. — I, Longitudinal
section of lilastoderm. n,
nuclei. ?/, yolk, s.g, sexnal

germs. '2, Hinder end of the depth 01 the blastoderm ; the

blastoderm, to illustrate the i • i 1 1 l • i

re-entry of the sexualgerms. UUClCl at tllC SaUlC tllUC bCCOlUe
W, blastoderm, s.gr, sexual
germs. (From Eitter, 1890,
figs. 9, 10 )

same
temporarily elongated in a direc-
tion perpendicular to the surface
of the egg. The formation of a single cellular layer
enclosing the yolk has often been cited as an example of

Ventral Plate

i6i

the ' superficial cleavage ' supposed to be characteristic
of Arthropoda generally. The superficial cleavage of the
insect-egg is however, as Carriere (1897) remarks, only
apparent. The cells appear in the interior of the egg,
and merely become superficial by migration.

Some of them, whose function is probably digestive,
can be seen at a much later time in stained sections as
small, branching, nucleated, protoplasmic masses scattered
through the yolk. About twenty
hours after egg-laying the sexual
germs re-enter the egg (fig. 120),
apparently forcing a passage in
mass through the hinder end of
the blastoderm.

The cells of the blastoderm now Vcntrai

. - plate.

divide rapidly along what will

afterwards be the ventral surface
of the embryo. There is thus
formed a thickening, the ventral
plate or germ-hand [Keimstrelf),
which runs nearly round the egg-
lengthwise ; it becomes unusually
solid in the region of the future
tail (fig. 122). As the ventral plate

Fig. 120. — Longitiidinal sec-

gemis^ tS'T^w^^ncinded! thickcns, the cclls ou the dorsal

and the blastoderm is closed.
2/, yolk. 5?, blastoderm, sg,
sexual germs.

fold.

surface thin out.

A longitudinal ventral infold- ventrai
ing next appears, which deepens rapidly, and the
median blastodermic cells are thereby pushed a little
way into the yolk. The cavity of the fold is obliter-
ated very early, and the infolded cells are cut off from
the surface by the reunion beneath them of the outer
layer.

The ventral groove is generally taken to be the cavity of
a shallow and elongate gastraea ; this identification only

M

i62 Embryonic Development of CJiironomus

Origin of
inner
germinal
layers.

applies to tlie earlier stage, before the ectoderm reunites
beneath the infolded cells.

In most of the insects whose development has been
carefully studied ^ the entoderm and the mesoderm are
developed in the following way : — the infolded cells
along the greater part of the length of the fold become
mesoderm- cells, bat at the oral and anal ends of the line
median cell-masses form, which are the rudiments of the

-4 A-

'i^-..*/-

\%

•^

Fig. iji — Transverse sections of embryo, showing successive
stages of the develiiping niesenteron. v.j>^ ventral plate.
y)i\ prominences from which the ento-mesoderm is derived.
Ih, lateral bands of ento-mesoderm. n, nerve-cord. (From
Eitter, 1890, figs. 30-33.)

entoderm. These are pushed into the interior by the oral
and anal invaginations (fore-gut and hind-gut). A pair
of cellular strings then grow backwards from the anterior
cell-mass, and a similar pair forwards from the posterior
mass. The two pairs approach, meet on either side,

' e. g. Musca ^Kowale^vsky), Apis (Grass!'), Hj-dropliilus (Heider),
Doi-yphora (Wheeler', and Chalicodoma (Carriere).

Diversity of Entodciin-fonnation 163

extend vertically until they are converted into slieets
enclosing tlie yolk, and finally coalesce to form the
mid-gut.

In Chironomus the formation of the entoderm, as first
described by Ritter (1890), is somewhat different. The
inward -projecting ridge, at first single and median,
becomes paired by the formation of lateral thicken-
ings, and then divided by constriction into segmentallj^
arranged prominences, which are almost hemispherical,
and bulge into the yolk. Secondary prominences (rudi-
ments of the mid-gut) now form upon the hemispherical
surfaces. These are at first segmental, distinct from one
another, and paired, like the prominences from which
they grow out ; they consist of different kinds of cells on
their inner and outer faces (i. e. on the faces which are
turned towards and away from the middle line). The
inner cells are relatively large, while the outer ones
remain small. The secondary prominences project more
and more into the yolk, fuse together on either side, and
at length become detached as a pair of longitudinal
bands, each consisting of an outer and an inner layer
of cells (fig. 121). The inner layer, which comes next
to the yolk, ultimately yields the mucous wall of the
mid-gut, while the outer layer forms the muscular wall.
The two bands are at first ventral to the chief mass of
the yolk (fig. 121), but they soon extend until they meet
and fuse above and below, thus completing the wall of
the mid-gut, and enclosing the yolk.

It is not a little perplexing to the student that the Diversity
entoderm should arise in a variety of ways in different ""^ ^^*°-
animals. The variety of formation is illustrated by the mation.
fact familiar to every embryologist, that the j^olk some-
times lies inside the entoderm and sometimes outside it.
For instance, in the two primary divisions of Myriopods
this difference seems to be regular and characteristic. In
Chilopoda the mesenteron encloses the yolk ; in Chilo-

M 2

164 Embryonic Development of Chironomns

gnatha it runs as a tube through the yolk ', In the less
complex cases of animal development, which are usually
chosen for elementary teaching, the entoderm arises by
invagination of the blastoderm (Sagitta, Amphioxus,
Echinoderms). Here there is little or no yolk. Where
yolk becomes abundant we get the modifications known
as e]3iboly, delamination, polar regression, &c. The con-
tinuity of the entoderm may be lost. Its cells may be
gorged with yolk. Their nuclei may afterwards retreat
outwards and form a new epithelium (Astacus, &c.) which
encloses the yolk. Not only may the invagination for the
entoderm disappear altogether, but when it is retained
it may take the most unexpected forms. In Chironomus
and other insects it is on general grounds .likely that
the tissue formed by infolding is really the entoderm,
from which the mesoderm is afterwards differentiated.
The details still require to be elucidated by practised
embryologists.

Position of At this time (end of first day of hatching) the parts of

embryo at • i r- m • • i • m ^(^^

end of first the embryo are m the lollowmg position (ng. 122;: — Ine
'^^^' body is curled up within the egg, l3^ing in the median

longitudinal plane, with its ventral surface close to the
egg-shell, and the dorsal surface, which is largely open,
in contact with the yolk. The head is thrown back and
lies on the dorsal surface. The tail-end is at a short
distance, and between the two is a thin sheet of extra-
embr37onic blastoderm. At this point the yolk projects
between the head and tail, which are therefore distinctly
marked out.
Envelopes The edgcs of the ventral plate pass into the extra-
embryonic blastoderm, which retains its original character
of a single layer of cells. On the sides of the future body
this tract will gradually be encroached upon by the
extension of the ventral plate, which grows upwards on
either side, and ultimately completes the body-wall ;
between the head and tail, temporarily in apposition, the

' Metschnikoff, Zciisch.f. wiss. Zool, Bde. xxiv-v ,1874-5).

Envelopes

165

extra -embryonic blastoderm gives rise to the envelopes of
tlie embryo.

The tail-end, which is particularly thick in this stage,
now bends inwards (i. e. towards the centre of the egg)
and a little backwards (i.e. towards the hinder pole of
the egg), pushing before it the sexual germs, which are,
so to speak, caught in its

/■■■ •• \f J/ ■:'<=i.,V\

is \ ■■

>i

u.\-^

' v'^

^ji ' '

'■;:'.

fe- ■

%!

W,r'.

"ti

y/>-% , ^

^ji.J;

fe- '

^^i-

concavity (fig. 122).

The extra - embryonic
dorsal blastoderm now
sends out a fold (tail-fold
of the amnion) which
grows backwards in close
contact with the embryo
as far as the hinder pole
of the egg, and ultimatel}^
still further, bending round
to the ventral surface. A
little later a head-fold
forms just behind the head
from the same dorsal blas-
toderm, pushes forward,
and then, curving round
the anterior pole of the
egg, grows backward along
the ventral surface to meet bryo dm-
the tail-fold. The _„ „'.

^ ^ ^ , , p termination of tail-fold upon future ven-

lolds coalesce, and lorm a u-a\ sm-faoe. ua. hind-sut. hi, sexual

Fig.

-Lor^itudiual section of em-
■ formation of tail-fold of am-

nion. /(, head, vj)^ ventral plate, am, outer
two layer of amnion. am\ inner ditto, am" ,

tral surface. luu hind-gut. .'</,
, , -, 1 • ^ ^ , o-erms. (From Kitter, 1890, fig. 19.)

double embrj^onic mem-
brane, which is singularly like the amnion of the higher
vertebrates (fig. 123).

The coalescence is not at first quite complete, for an
oval space on the ventral wall remains for some time
uncovered by the amniotic folds. The edges of the folds
slowly extend until the whole embryo is enclosed.

i66 Embryonic Development of Cliironomus

The outer wall of tlie united folds is called, as in other
animals, the serosa ; it forms a complete investment to

Fig. 1J3. — Diagrams to illustrate the formation of the amnion and serosa of
Chironomus-eniljryo. 1, beginning of tail-fold on straight side of egg. 2, tail-
fold reaches hinder pole. 3, (after rotation of embryo) head-fold appears on
convex side. 4, head-fold growing over anterior pole. 5, coalescence of head-
and tail-folds on ventral surface. 6?, blastoderm, y, yolk, f, tail-fold. 7i, head-
fold, ap, apex of tail-fold, ap' , apex of head-fold. /, inner embryonic membrane.
e, outer ditto. (From Kupfter, Arch. f. luikr. Anat., Bd. ii (1886).)

the embryo. The inner wall is called amnion or true
amnion ; it is continuous, except for a short distance

Lateral Tracts 167

between the approximated ends of the body. Between
the two a clear iluid can be detected with some difficulty.

The original motive, so to speak, of the amnion of
insects can only be guessed at. It may be rudimentary
(Muscidae), or wanting altogether (Poduridae, Cecido-
myia, &:c.), and its relation to the yolk varies greatly
in different insects. One special use of the amniotic
folds may be noted. In some insect-eggs (Chironomus,
&c.) ih.Q embryo is long and peripherally coiled, so that
the head and tail nearly meet ; the intervening extra-
embryonic blastoderm is naturally short. In a later stage
the embryo straightens itself, so that the head gets to
one end of the egg, and the tail to the other. This
straightening is greatly facilitated by the extended folds
of the blastoderm. Whatever circumstances may have
led to the first development of an amnion, it seems to be
now a protective structure, protecting the delicate body
from friction. In a late stage the serosa of the Chiro-
nomus- egg has been found to be retracted into the dorsal
surface of the embryo, and to be there incorporated with
the yolk '. The amnion persists as a dead and shrivelled
membrane, which can often be seen within an egg from
which the larva has escaped ^.

The ventral plate is from a rather early stage, when the Lateral
amniotic folds are beginning to form, marked along the
middle line of its free surface by a much more conspicuous
and wider groove than that of the ventral fold already
described. This runs along the body from the tail-end
to the junction of the future head and thorax, where it
ends by forking. The groove marks out a pair of thicken-
ings, the lateral fi'acfs (Kehmciils-fe), which are promi-
nent features of the embrj^o during the middle stages of
its growth.

At the time when the lateral tracts appear the embryo Rotation of

embryo.
' Graber, 1888, p. 34. - Id. (loc. cit.).

i68 Embryonic Dcvclopniciit of Cluronounis

rotates on its principal axis tlirougli an angle of i8o", and
the parts corresponding to the future head and tail, which
lay on the flat side of the o^^^^ are shifted to the opposite,
or convex side. The rotation is effected in about a quarter
of an hour. The embryo of Simulium effects a similar
rotation. In some Orthopterous eggs with copious yolk
the embryo travels from the ventral to the dorsal surface,
always returning to its original position before hatching ^.
The embryo of Chironomus, too, regains its original
position by a second rotation.
Formation Early in the second day segmentation of the ventral

of S 6 O"!!! Gil t S .

anciappen- plate sets in. The three jaw-segments are first defined
( ages. ^^^ 125). A little later the brain section of the head, in
front of the jaw-segments, sends out a pair of lateral lobes,
which almost touch in the middle line. The central
unpaired lobe projects a little further forwards than the
lateral lobes, and is a good deal smaller. From the central
lobe will be developed the clypeus and labrum, while the
lateral lobes will yield the epicranial plates ; the rest of
the body then rajjidly segments from before backwards,
until three thoracic and nine abdominal segments are
developed^.

Somewhat later, and after the formation of the rudi-
ments of the nervous system, paired buds appear, first on
the jaw- segments, and a little later on the first and last
abdominal segments ; these are the first signs of the
appendages (fig. 125).

It seems that the full number of insect-segments is
about twenty. Of these the first three are supposed to
be indicated chiefly by the divisions of the brain ; only
one, the second, bears a pair of appendages, the antennae ;

' Wheeler, 1893, p. 68.

^ The greatest number of abdominal segments clearly seen in any
insect is eleven. Indications of a transitory premandibular segment
have been detected in some insects, but not, so far as we know, in
Chironomus.

Second Rotation 169

the tliird is the premanclibular segment, whose ap-
pendage, undeveloped in all insects of post-embr3^onic
age, would apparently correspond to the second pair
of antennae of Crustacea. The development of this
region is peculiar, in that it proceeds from a central and
two lateral masses. The central tract is believed to be
relatively primitive ; it becomes divisible into three, or,
according to some authors, four successive lobes, each
with its "own ganglionic mass. The lateral tracts, which
are outgrowths from the central one, yield the compound
eyes, the antennae, and the ganglia specially associated
with these organs. The antennae are at first placed on
each side of the mouth, or even behind it ; they grow
forwards and soon become pre-oral. It has been thought
that there was primitively a pair of simple eyes to each
of the three median segments ^ Behind these come the
three or four jaw-segments, whose ganglia fuse to form
the suboesophageal. Only the appendages of the jaw-
segments are usually well developed ; of the segments
themselves doubtful remnants have been traced in the
occipital or gular regions of the head. The brain-
segments are therefore excessively developed clorsally
and laterally, but incompletely ventrally ; while the
jaw-segments are incomplete dorsally, and only dis-
tinguishable by their ventral appendages. The three
thoracic segments normally bear legs, and each encloses
its own ganglion. The abdominal segments often bear
appendages in some stage or other, but the morphological
value of these appendages is not yet established. (See

P- 33-)

To>vards the middle of the second day the embryo, Second
which has for some hours been so placed in the egg that
the head- and tail-ends of the ventral plate lay on the
convex side, slowly rotates a second time through 180".

In the course of the second day the fore- and hind-gut Fore- and

, . , hind-gut.

form. An invagination appears at the tail-end 111 tlie
inturned extremity of the ventral plate. The proximal
wall of the invagination is thick ; the distal wall (nearer
to the end of the body) is continuous with the extra-
embryonic blastoderm. The fore-gut forms in the same

' Patten, 'The Eyes of Acilius,' Journal of Mon^holocjij, vol. ii, 1888.

170 Embryonic Development of Chironomiis

Nerve-
cord.

way by an infolding of ectoderm from the future moutli
(fig. 126).

AVliile tlie fore- and hind-gut are forming, the embryo
has begun to shorten, and in a few hours tlie tail-end
retreats to the hinder pole of the egg, while the body
becomes almost straight (fig. 125).

The details of the formation of the nerve-cord cannot
be followed with advantage in Chironomus-eggs, which
are small and hard to orientate. The main features
of the development, so far as we have been able to
observe them, agree with the beautiful results obtained
by AVheeler in Xiphidium (1893).

Large cells appear on the
deep face of the ectoderm
of the ventral plate. From
these are derived by pro-
liferation ganglion - cells
which arrange themselves
as columns of daughter-cells.
Two lateral masses are thus
formed, and we have seen
indications of a middle
element. The masses of nerve-cells grow rapidly, and
are mainly responsible for the prominent lateral tracts
already mentioned. There are at first as many ganglia as
segments ; they are large, extend throughout the seg-
ments, and are only interrupted by the intersegmental
constrictions. Connectives and commissures form later.
The neurilemma is an epithelium derived from the ecto-
derm. The original fifteen ganglia behind the brain are
gradually reduced to twelve, the suboesophageal ganglion
of the larva being a comj)lex of three, and the last abdo-
minal a complex of two. During development the anterior
ganglia are always in advance of those further back.
The development of the brain is more complicated and

Fig. 124.— Transverse section of
embryo, showing sexual germs (sjr),
IDroctodaei^m or hind-gut (pr).

Condition of Embryo at end of Second Day 171

more uncertain. Authors liave recognized three or even
four pairs of successive ganglia, which are taken to be
the primitive elements of the brain. From the last
brain- segment the oesophageal connectives are given off.
From the second segment the antennae are innervated.
The first segment constitutes the chief mass of the brain,
including the optic ganglion \

n7x ■•'

J

iir

<n

\

Fig. 125. — Living embryo within the egg, after shortening,
in side and front (ventral) view, h-, labrum. lb, labium.
at, antenna, md, mandible, mx, maxilla. /, prothoracic foot.
Three thoracic and nine abdominal segments are seen in the
side view.

According to AVheeler (1893) the peripheral nerves
probably arise as outgrowths of the ganglia, while the
stomato-gastric ganglia are developed from the ectoderm
of the dorsal surface of the oesophagus.

At the end of the second day - the body is segmented, Condition

of embryo
' Viallanes, 1890 ; Wheeler, 1893. at end of

2 The indications of date here and elsewhere are only approximate. On second day.
account of the very different rate of development at different seasons, and
of the difficulty in procuring egg-chains immediately after they are laid,
it is hard to make tolerably sure of even the order of events.

172 Enibryonic Development of Cliirouonius

and already furnished witli appendages. The jaws are
three pairs of rounded prominences, and the antennae
large, blunt outgrowths from the lateral lobes of the

sat

St i^s%W^<L \

FiG. 126. — Sections of embryo before comi)letion of mid-p:nt. i, horizontal.
2, sagittal. &r, brain, st, stomodaenm (fore-gut), sal.g, salivary gland, mes,
mesenteron (mid-gut) n, nerve-cord, y, yolk, s.g, sexual gland. j)r, procto-
daeuni (hind-gut)

head (fig.

12:

The prothoracic and anal feet are not

3^et visible. The head is externally complete, and bears

Tliini Day

^73

a mucli larger proportion to tlie rest of the body than
ill the hirva after hatching. The fore-giit and hind-gut
are plainly visible, and about this time join the mid-gut,
which is still very incomplete, not enclosing the yolk on
the dorsal side (fig. 126}. The fore-gut pushes into the
mid-gut, which it indents and breaks through. Continuing
to lengthen, the fore-gut protrudes for a certain distance,
and is then reflected, meeting the wall of the mid-gut
^vitll a marked break in continuity, as fig. 126 shows.
It is not true, as has been said by Weismanii and others,
that the wall of the cardia (' proventriculus '} is derived
from the fore-gut ; it is altogether entodermic, as is
evident from a careful ex-
amination in any st^ge.
The future reproductive
organs are represented by
two cellular masses Ij'ing
in the yolk within the
hinder end of the abdomen,
which is strongly bent in-
wards. The nervous system
is a gangliated cord of
relatively large size. The
serosa completely invests
the body.

During the third day of development the jaws begin Third day.
to assume their ultimate form and arrangement. The
maxillae of the second pair unite to form a labium.
The prothoracic limbs appear, and the first indications of
the anal feet may sometimes be made out. The body has
now contracted to such a degree that the anus lies at the
posterior pole of the egg, the head being bent backwards
on the dorsal surface, and resting upon a large mass of
yolk. The ento-mesodermal rudiments are fast growing
round the yolk, and the dorsal wall approaches com-

FiG. 127. — Diagram of development
of oesophageal valve and cardiac
chamber. X 300.

[74 Embryonic Development of C/iu'onojnus

Fourth
day.

pletioii, closing-in being facilitated by the sliortening of
the body.

The amnion tears across the ventral surface, and is
retracted towards the middle of the back, where its
remains continue for a time to be visible on the surface
of the yolk.

In the course of the fourth day all the parts rapidly
advance. The wall of the mid-gut is completed. The

Tracheal
system,

Fig. 128. — Late embryo in egg. i, side view. 2, ventral view.

envelopes of the reproductive bodies appear. The tho-
racic and abdominal limbs become quite plain. Eye-
spots appear. The body enlarges in proportion to the
head, and its dorsal wall is completed (fig. 128).

Chironomus is not well suited for the examination of
the development of the tracheal system, which is quite
rudimentary even in the fully formed larva of the tube-
inhabiting species.

Bodv-cavitv. Dorsal Vessel

175

Our information respecting; the development of the Body-

. , Ti cavity.

bodv-cavity and dorsal vessel is neither lull nor alto- Dorsal

vessel.

getlier trustworthy. Very few of our sections illustrated
the later stages of formation. The paired longitudinal
thickenings on the inner face of the ventral plate,
described on p. 163, become transversely segmented and

hollow. The cavities soon
unite on either side to form
a coelom. Then the walls
of the mesenteron become
detached from the ridges,
as described on p. 163.
The ridges next begin
slowly to grow upwards
and to enclose both mes-
enteron and yolk. The
narrow body-cavity extends
of course at the same time.
The outer layer yields the
muscles of the body-wall,
while much of the inner
layer seems to break up,
perhaps into wandering
cells and blood-corpuscles.
From the dorsal margin of

Fia. 129.— Larva coiled up within the the mesodermal layers are

egg, jnst before hatcliing. Ir, labruni. -i • 1 j-l Tic. r\V ^■^ a

ant, antenna, mcl, mandible, mx, max- CleriVeCl tllC liaiVCS 01 tlie

ilia. J6, labium. 6r, brain (within the ,i „,,„„! -rraacAl

head), p/, prothoracic foot, a./, anal "-lUibcii ve&&«i.

f°°t- During the fifth day the Fifth day.

head and jaws acquire very nearly their ultimate form.
The salivary glands and ducts, which had a separate
origin, now open into the mouth. The body is con-
siderably longer than the egg, and somewhat coiled, as
shown in fig. 128.

On the sixth day, the coiling increases, and the larva sixth day.

176 Embryonic Devdopincnt of CJiirononius

begins to move about. The cliitiuous cuticle becomes
evident. Tlie egg-sliell is burst open, and the larva
becomes free.
Fresh- The fresli-liatclied larva is half a millimeter long, and

hatched -,• ^^ ■ ■ ^ •in

larva. difters in various details from the larva of later stages.

The blood has no red tinge ; there are no ventral
respiratory tubules ; the head is relatively large, and as
yet encloses the brain ; the nervous system is proportion-
ally large, and each ganglion seems to extend through
the whole length of the enclosing segment, or nearly so ;
remnants of the yolk are still to be seen in the body-
cavity, and within the alimentary canal. After the first
moult, these peculiar features disappear, and the ordinary
larval structure is attained.

APPENDIX

METHODS OF ANATOMICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION

(Additional remarks on methods will be found on pp. 7, 25, 69, 158.)

Much may be made out respecting the strnctiire of the General iu-
Lirva by simple examination of the living and uninjured
animal under the microscope. A little dissection maj^
also be done with the help of a dissecting microscope.
This is particularly important for the purpose of getting
true notions as to the relative situation of the organs.
We have also made great use of comparatively thick
but transparent sections made by the celloidin process.
These are particularly serviceable in topographical ana-
tomy. Lastly, continuous thin sections are indispensable
for histological study.

The following directions incorporate the experience of Mr.
Mr. Norman Walker, Demonstrator in Botany at the mSS'^of
Yorkshire College, who has made many excellent series tkTn for"
for us :— cuttino:.

'fixing and preseeving larvae.

' The two following fixing methods have been found to
answer well.

' I. Flemmhig's chromic-acetic-osmic acid. Larvae are
placed in this fluid for one hour. Each larva is halved
and again placed in the mixture for another hour. They
are then washed in mnning water for twenty-four hours.

MI ALL. Jf

178 Appendix

This is best done by using a wide-mouthed bottle fitted
with a cork bored with two holes. A straight glass inlet-
tube is passed through one hole down to the bottom of
the bottle. In the other is fitted a V-shaped outlet-tube.
which is not allowed to descend quite through the cork.
This allows a piece of copper gauze to be tacked over the
outlet-aperture, to prevent the objects being swept out
of the bottle. A current of water passing through the
bottle keeps the larvae gently moving about in the water.
Flemming's mixture, although an extremely faithful fixing
agent, often renders staining by haematoxylin methods
difficult, especially if the objects have not been thoroughly
washed.

' 2. Perenyis chromo-nitric acid. Six hours are allowed
in this fluid. At the end of three hours the larvae are cut
in two. 70 per cent, alcohol is used for washing, and this
should be continued for twenty-four hours. After fixing,
the larvae may be preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol until
required.

'staining and preparing for continuous sections.

' Staining in hulk. From distilled water the larvae are
transferred to weak Delafield's haematoxylin solution.
They remain in this fluid until stained a uniform blue.
To determine this, the larvae must be occasionally exa-
mined with a pocket lens in distilled water. In about
a week they wiU probably be sufficiently stained. The
staining fluid is washed out by distilled water. After
dehydration the larvae are cleared in clove oil. From
absolute alcohol they are passed into a mixture of equal
parts of clove oil and absolute alcohol for half an hour,
and finally into pure oil for two or three hours.

' Paraffin embedding. From clove oil the larvae are
transferred direct to the hard paraffin bath for six
hours.

Appendix 179

' CUTTING IN CONTINUOUS SECTIONS.

' In cutting insect-sections, wliere hard cliitinous parts
are encountered, it is often found difficult to keep a con-
tinuous ribbon. This may at times be due to the imperfect
union of the hard paraffin and the coating of soft paraffin.
This coating of soft paraffin, which has long been recom-
mended, is very helpful in making obstinate sections
stick together, when it is properly a^Dplied. Immediately
before dipping the trimmed paraffin block into soft
paraffin, the upper and lower sides ^ should be touched
with a hot knife. By this means the soft paraffin is
made to adhere firmly to the block, and is not liable
to become detached during the cutting.

'staining on the slide.
' The sections are cemented to the slide in serial order
by Mayer's albumen. After melting and dissolving off
the paraffin with turpentine, the sections are passed
through the various strengths of alcohol into distilled
water, and then into weak Delafield's haematoxylin solu-
tion. This stains very slowly, and by occasionally exa-
mining the sections under a microscope after washing in
distilled water, a very precise result may be obtained.
The weak Delafield's haematoxylin solution will keep in
the dipping-bottle for a long time if a little camphor
is added. For nuclear differentiation Heidenhain's
haematoxylin will be found to give better results than
the above method. From distilled water the sections
are ti;ansferred to \ per cent, solution of haematoxylin
in distilled water for about an hour, and then treated for
the same length of time with \ per cent, solution of
neutral chromate of potash. Wash in distilled water,
dehydrate, clear in turpentine, and mount in balsam.

1 The block is supposed to project horizontally from the holder.

N 2

i8o Appendix

' CELLOIDIN SECTIONS.

'By the celloidin- embedding method very thick sec-
tions may be cut. Larvae fixed by tlie chromo-nitric acid
metliod are stained in a borax-carmine sohition for at
least a week. After washing in acidulated alcohol and
dehydrating, they are placed in a mixture of equal parts
of absolute alcohol and ether for a few hours. A thick
solution of celloidin in the same mixture should then be
added, a few drojDs at a time, at intervals of a few hours,
until the consistency of a thick syrup has been reached.
The contents of the bottle are then poured into a paper
tray, and the larvae arranged in the desired position by
means of needles wet with the mixture of alcohol and
ether. The tray is allowed to stand for about ten minutes,
until the surface has set, and is then submerged in 80 per
cent, alcohol for a day. The paper is now removed, and
the celloidin mass cut up into blocks, which are carefully
trimmed. These may be kept in 80 per cent, alcohol
until required to be sectionized. To fix the celloidin
block upon the object-holder of the microtome (or upon
any wooden holder to be clamped in the microtome), pour
a few drops of a celloidin solution upon the surface of the
holder. Dip the celloidin block into a little ether in
a watch-glass, and then press it firmly upon the holder.
Allow it to stand for a few minutes, and then place it in
80 per cent, alcohol for a few hours. The sections should
be made with a long slicing cut, the razor and the
celloidin block being kept well wetted with spirit. The
sections are arranged in serial order, close together,, upon
two or three slides, and the excess of 80 per cent, alcohol
is removed with blotting-paper. To fix the sections to
a slide, place in a covered dish (a Petrie's dish answers
very well) with a little ether in the bottom. In a few
seconds the celloidin in which the sections are embedded

Appendix i8i

will soften and adhere to the slide. Before removing
from the dish, add by means of a pipette a few drops
of 95 per cent, alcohol, and then submerge the slide in
spirit of the same strength in a dipping-bottle. Clear by
transferring to a mixture of one part absolute phenol with
four parts xylol. Entire larvae may be cut by this process
if plenty of time is allowed for staining and embedding.'

MOUNTING or ENTIRE LAEVAE.

Mr. J. J. AVilkinson, of Skipton, gives the following Mr.wiikin-
instructions for mounting aquatic larvae whole without thod of
pressure. Many of his j^reparations are extremely useful "Xre '"^
for anatomical study, as the internal organs can be ex-
amined microscopically in situ. For some reason which
we can only guess at, the Chironomus-larvae hitherto put
up are not quite so successful as others, but they have
yielded good results. Perhaps the best proportion of
alcohol and ether has not yet been exactly determined.

' Select transparent specimens, place them alive in clear
water, and keep them without food for a day or two, so as
to empty the alimentary canal. Have ready a number of
small, wide-mouthed bottles, containing a suitable mixture
of absolute alcohol and ether. If larvae are put into
alcohol alone they shrink, as exosmose is greater than
endosmose. In a mixture which contains too much ether
the case is reversed, and the larvae will swell until they
burst. From 15 to 20 per cent, of ether is suitable for
most larvae, but those of Chironomus will not bear more
than 10 per cent. AVhen all is ready, put a larva into
a watch-glass containing the mixture, and hold it in the
desired position with two small sable brushes. As soon
as it is set (that is, in from three to ten minutes, according
to size), transfer it to one of the bottles containing the same
mixture. Leave it for a few hours (or days, if more con-

1 82 Appendix

venient) and then transfer to absolute alcohol unmixed.
The ether must be got rid of before the next process ;
if any is left, a gas (ether vapour?) will appear in the
tissues and spoil the preparation, causing it to appear black
l)y transmitted light. From alcohol transfer to oil of
cloves to clear, then mount in an excavated cell with
balsam and benzine. New balsam should be used, or the
mixture should be newly boiled, so as to diminish the
risk of liberation of vapour.

' Certain delicate structures, such as the branchial fila-
ments of the Sialis-larva, require special treatment. AVhen
the larva is immersed in the alcohol and ether mixture
add about lo per cent, of ether, and repeat this several
times until the mixture is almost pure ether. Transfer
quickl}'- to a second bottle containing enough pure ether
to cover the object entirely. To this add every day a few
drops of balsam mixed with benzine, and leave the cork
rather loose, so that the ether may slowly evaporate.
When nothing remains but balsam and benzine, the
preparation may be mounted. Onl}^ new balsam should
be used.'

OTHER METHODS.

For the examination of the minute structure of the
oesophageal valve sections were not found to be sufficient.
Much useful information was got from fresh preparations
treated with 2 j)er cent, caustic potash, and examined
while the alkali was acting. Teased-out preparations,
stained with haematoxylin or borax-carmine, and
mounted in glycerine, were also very useful.

ADDITIONAL NOTE

ON THE SWARMING AND BUZZING OF HARLEQUIN-FLIES

(See pp. 9 and 99.)

Mr. T. H. Taylor furnishes the following observations
on swarms of harlequin-flies, which were received too
late for insertion in the proper place. The text has,
however, been altered in accordance with the new infor-
mation: —

' When a swarm of harlequin-flies is dancing some ten
or fifteen feet from the ground, it is observed that at
intervals a pair of flies leaves the rest, and descends. If
the pair be captured, it will be generally found to consist
of a male and a female. Occasionally it consists of two
males. Sometimes there are three flies in a cluster ; one
captured triplet yielded two males and a female. After
a mating pair has flown a short distance from the swarm,
the union is broken ; the male returns to its comrades,
but the female flies away. The number of females in the
swarm is probably never large ; it seems to be affected by
wind. In calm weather pairing is readily accomplished,
and the females soon leave the swarm, but a high wind
renders pairing difficult, and the females remain longer
in the company of the males. On a calm evening a sweep
of the net yielded 700 flies, all of which were males. On
another evening, when the swarm was much disturbed
by wind, 4,300 flies were captured, twenty-two of which
were females.

184 Additional Note

' If the net with its captive flies be held to the ear.
a distinct buzzing is heard. If a single fly be seized by
the legs, so that the wings are free to vibrate, and held
close to the ear, the note is plainly heard, and can easily
be determined. The male fly yields the note of sharp
(about 450 vibrations), the female b (about 240 vibrations).
The pitch is not constant, but varies through three or
four semitones. No evidence was obtained of any sound
other than that due to the vibration of the wings.'

As different notations are quoted on j)p. 97-9, it may
be worth while to explain that Ut 3, Ut 4, and Ut ^
answer to c', c". and c'".

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riiistoire des insectes. 6 vols., plates. Paris, 4to. Vol.

vii was never published, but some of the j)lates and

notes for the text are believed to be in possession of the

French Institute (Hagen, Bihliotheca Entomologica, p. 64).

The Diptera are contained in vols, iv and v. Vallot's

Concordance Systematique (pp. xviii, 198 ; Paris, 4to,

1802) is a useful help to the student of Reaumur.
Rexgel, C. (1896). Ueber die Veranderungen des Darmepithels

bei Tenehrio molitor wiihrend der Metamorphose. Zeds.

f. tviss. Zool, Ixii, pp. 1-60, PI. i.
RiTTER, R. (1890). Die Entwicklung der Geschlechtsorgane

und des Darmes bei Chironomus. Zeds. f. w'lss. Zool., 1.

pp. 408-427, PI. xvi.
RuKiN. C. (1862). Memoire sur les globules polaires de I'ovule.

Brown-Sequard, Journ. de Physiol., v, pp. 149-190;

C. R., liv, pp. 1 1 2-1 1 6.
RoLLETT, A. (1861). Zur Kenntniss der Verbreitung des

Hamatin. Sdzungsh. Wien. Akad., xliv, pp. 615-630.
ScHiEMENZ, P. (1883). Ueber das Herkommen des Futtersaftes

und die Speicheldriisen der Biene, &c. Zeds. f. toiss.

Zool, xxxviii, pp. 71-135, PI. v-vii.
ScHiNER, J. R. (186 2-1 864). Fauna Austriaca, Die Fliegen

(Diptera). 2 vols., PI. i, ii. Wien, 8vo.
Schneider, A. (1887). Ueber den Darmkanal der Arthropoden.

Zool. Beitr. von Dr. A. Schneider, ii. Pp. 82-96, PI.

viii-x.
Viallanes, H. (1882). Recherches sur Thistologie des in-
sectes et sur les phenomenes histologiques qui accom-

pagnent le developpement post-embryonnaire de ces

animaux. Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool, 6^ ser., xiv, pp. 1-348,

PI. i-xviii.

Bibliography 191

ViGNON, P. (1899). Sur I'histologie du tvibe digestif de lu

lai-ve de Cli i ronomus phmiosus. C -B.,cxxviii, pp. 1596-8,

ViLLOT, A. (1874). Monogi-aphie des Dragonneaux (genre

Gordius, Dujardin). Arch. Zool. ExxMh:, iii, pp. 39-72,

181-238, PI. i, ii, vi-ix.

Weismann, a.

(1863). Die Entstelmng des vollendeten Insekts in Larve

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xiii, xiv, pp. 107-220, PI. i-xiv.
(1866). Die Metamorphose der Corethra plumicornis. Zeita.

f. tviss. Zool., xvi, pp. 45-127, PI. iii-vii.
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Embryologie, J. Henle von seinen Schiilern als Festgabe
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Problems. Vol. i. The Continuity of the Germ-plasm
as the Foundation of a Theory of Heredity. Oxford, 8vu.
Wheeler, W. M.

(1889). The Embryology of Blatta germanka and DorypUom
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(1893). A Contribution to Insect Embryology. (Develop-
ment of Xiphidium, &c.) Journ. Morph., Boston, viii,
pp. I -1 60, PL i-vi.
WiELOwiEjsKi, H. VON (1886). Ueber das Blutgewebe der

Insekten. Zeits. f. wiss. Zool, xliii, pp. 512-536,
WuLP, F. K. VAN DER (1877). Dipteia Neerlandica. De
tweevleugelige Insecteii van Nederland. Eerste Deel.
Pp. xviii, 498, PI. i-xiv. 's Gravenhage, 8vo.

INDEX

Abdomen, of fly, 104; of pupa, 140.
Adult and enibryouic transformation,

152.
Alary muscles of larva, 73-
Alimentary canal, of larva, 49 ; of

insects, nomenclature of, 50 ; of fly,

106 ; changes in, 147.
Amnion of insects, 167.
Anopheles, 31, 84, 91.
Antennae, of larva, 27 ; of fl}', 92 ;

of pupa, 140; development of ditto,

172.
Aphis-larva, spiracles of, 109.
Auditory organ of fly, 94.

Balbiani, on salivary glands, 68 ; on
embryonic development of Chiro-
nomus, 157.

Bibliography, 185.

Blastoderm, formation of, 159; of
Chironomus, 160.

Blood of larva, 77.

Blood-gills, S3.

Blood-space of larva, 85.

Body-wall of larva, 85.

Branchial system of larva, 83.

Brauer's classification, 14.

Calliphora, 23, 75.

Cardia of larva, 52, 54.

Carrifere on superficial cleavage of
insect-egg, 161.

Ceratopogon, 34.

Chironomus, species of, 10; two groups
of, II, 146, 150; transformations
of, 119.

Chironomus- eggs, 8, 153, 157; muci-
lage of, 155 ; facilities for study of,
156; methods of study of, 158;
fertilization and segmentation of.

Chironomus-fly, 9 ; extrication of, 8 ;
in winter, 8 ; egg-laying of, 9 ; its
head, 88; chitinous tunnels, 89;
eyes, 91 ; antennae, 92 ; auditory
organ, 94 ; sounds emitted by, 97 ;
its mouth- parts, 99 ; thorax, 100 ;
legs, 104 ; wings, 104 ; abdomen,
104; alimentary canal, 106; heart,
108 ; tracheal system, 108 ; repro-
ductive organs, 109; female organs,
in; male organs, 116; development
of, 118; of thorax of, 121; of
thoracic appendages, 122; of head,
127; of leproductive organs, 135.

Chironomus-larva, its habitat, i ;
tubes in mud, i ; food, i ; move-
ments, 2 ; limbs, 2 ; labrum, 3 ; at
great depths, 3 ; in salt water, 3 ;
parasites of, 4; enemies of, 7 j
collecting of, 7 ; fresh-hatched, 10 ;
varieties of, 10, 135, 150 ; external
form, 25; examination of, 25; its
segments, 26; appendages, 26, 32;
thorax, 26 ; head, 26 ; antennae,
27, 49; eye-spnts, 27, 48; jaws, 28 ;
interior of liead, 29; salivary ducts,
29, 70 ; lingua, 30 ; brain, 30 ;
blood-gills, 35, 83; sensory setae,
35, 49 ; epidermis, 36 ; chitinous
cuticle, 36 ; wandering cells, 40 ;
insertion of muscles in, 42 ; its
nervous system, 43 ; transverse
nerves, 45 ; stomato-gastric nerves,
48 ; sense-organs, 48 ; alimentary
canal, 49 ; oesophagus, 49, 53, 62 ;
stomach, 49, 55 ; salivary glands,
50, 67 ; Malpighian tubules, 50,
70; mouth, 52 ; oesophageal valve,
53, 60 ; peri trophic membrane, 44,
58 ; cardia, 54 ; Vignon on histology
of alimentary canal of, 60 (note) ;
its dorsal vessel, 71 j heart, 71 ;
aorta, 71 ; alary muscles, 73 ; bloody

O

194

Index

77; respiratory organs, So; tracheal
system, 80 ; branchial sy.-tem, 83 ;
Iiody-\vall, 85 ; fatty tissues, 85 ;
peculiarities when fresh-hatched,
176.

Chironomus-pupa, 8 ; varieties of,
10, 150; development of, 118;
characteristic organs of, 139; its
legs, 140; wings, 140; abdomen,
140; antennae, 140; tail, 140;
tracheal system, 141 ; ti'aclieal gills,
141 ; changes in alimentary caiial
of, 147 ; diverticulum of ditto, 148.

Clinocera, larva of, 34.

Colon of larva, 67.

t'orethra, 21, 31, 48, 75, 82, 84, 129,
146.

Culex, 31, 43, 82, 84, 96, 146.

Dareste on changes in dorsal vessel
of larva and pup.i, 79.

Decentralization in Diptera, 106.

Development, of pupa and fly, 118 ;
eml)ryonic, 156 ; methods of study
of, 158.

Dicranota, 43, 55, 82, 84, 85, 146.

Diptera, sub-orders of, 19; larvae of,
compared, 20 ; caeca of, 55 ; dorsal
vessel of, 71 ; two types of dorsal
vessel in, 75 ; Hammond on thorax
of, 100 (note) ; formation of imaginal
liead in, 134; respiratory trumpets
of, 146 ; decentralization in, 106.

Diverticulum of pupal oesophagus,

Dixa, 82.

Dorsal vessel of larva, 71.

Ectadenes of Esclierich, 135.

Eggs of Chironomus, 154.

Embryonic and adult transformation,
153; development, 156.

Enemies of larva, 7.

Ephemeridae, reproductive outlets of,
no; Carboniferous, 123; wing-like
structures of, 123.

Ephydra, 83.

Eristalis, 84.

Escape of fly, 146.

Esclierich on ectadenes and mesa-
denes, 135.

E version of head, 133.

Eyes of fly. 91 ; development of, 127.

Fatty tissues of lava, 85.
Female organs of fly, in.

Gehucliten, oesopliageal valve of

Ptychoptera, 66.
Germs, sexual, 159.
Gordius, 4.
Graber on development of dorsal vessel

of larva, 74.
Grimm on egg-laying by pupa, 117-

Haemoglobin, 77.
Hallez' law of orientation, 15S.
Head of fly, eversion of, 133.
Heart, of larva, 71 ; of fly, loS.
Hemerodromia, larva of, 35 (note).
Hydrobius, 82.

Hymenoptei-a, salivary glands of, 70;
formation of head of, 130 (note).

Imaginal folds, 119; of head, 127;
rudiments in thorax, 121; head,
foimation of, 135.

Insects, nomenclature of alimentary
canal of, 50 ; Malpighian tubules
of, 50 ; oesophageal valve of, 54
peritrophic membrane of, 58 ; de
velopnient of dorsal vessa of, 74
tracheal gills and blood-giils of, S3
tentorium of, 90 ; chitinons tunnel:
of, 91 ; rectal glands of, 107
thoi-acic spiracles of, 108 ; repro
ductive organs of, 109 ; larval stage
of, iiS; stripping of epithelium in,
147 ; pupal stage of, 151 ; develop-
ment of entoderm and mesoderm of,
162 ; amnion of, 167 ; number of
segments of, 168 ; development of
brain of, 171.

Insect-transformation an adult trans-
formation, 11^2.

Jaworowski, on dorsal vessel of lai -s'a,
73> 75 j on development of ditto,

74-
Johnston on auditory organ of gnat,
96.

Kowalewsky on pericardial cells of
larva, 74.

Landois, on transverse nerves, 47

(note) ; on sounds of insects, 97.
Lankester on haemoglobin, 78.
Larval moults of blow-fly, 132 (note).
Legs, of fly, 104; of pupa, 140.
Lyonet on Orthocladius, 14.

Index

195

Male organs of fly, 1 16.

Malpigbian tubules of larva, 70, 108;
development of, 175.

Mayer on gnats, 97.

Meinert on two groups of Chironomus-
larvae, 10.

Methods, of collecting, 7 ; of examin-
ing larvae, 25 ; of examining salivary
glands,' 69 ; of examining imaginal
rudiments, 121 ; of examining eggs,
158 ; of fixing and preserving larvae,
177 ; of staining and ]>reparing for
continuous sections, 178 ; of cutting
in continuous sections, 1 79 ! t*f
staining on the slide, 179; of
eelloidin sections, 180; of mount-
ing entire larvae, 181 ; of examin-
ing oesophageal valve, 182.

Mochlonyx, 31, ?'2, 84.

Moults of larva, 7, 132 (note).

Mouth-parts, of fly, 99 ; development
of, in larva, 131.

Miiller on sympathetic nervous system,
48 (note).

Muscidae, 119, 151 ; invaginations of,
132.

Nemocera, a sub-order of Diptera,
19 ; adaptive resemblances and
differences in, 23 ; leduction of
larval head in, 31 ; larval appen-
dages of, 33 ; position of larval brain
in, 43 ; tracheal system in larvae of,
81 ; blood-gills of, 84 ; tracheal
gills of, 84 ; ocelli of, 91 ; respira-
tory trumpets of, 123 ; more and
less primitive genera of, 131 ; pupal
respiratory organs of, 146.

Nemocei-an larvae, appendages of, 33 ;
ti-acheal system of, Si ; blood-gills
of, 84 ; auditory organ of, 96.

Nervous system of Chironomus-larva,
43-

Oesophageal digestion. Plateau on, 53 ;
valve of larva, 53.

Osten Sacken, on sub-orders of Diptera,
19 ; on Nemocera with similar
larvae but unlike flies, 24.

Palmen, morphology of reproductive

passages, no (note).
Parasites of larva, 4.
Patagia, 124.
Pericoma, 82, 85.

Peritrophic membrane of larva, £^3,

58.

Phagocytes, 125.

Phalacrocera, 43, 49, 82, 84.

Phillips, Miss Dorothy, on oesophageal
valve of larva, 60 ; on peritrophic
membrane of larva, 60, 66.

Phytomyza, 31.

Plateau, on nomenclature of ali-
mentary canal of insects, 50 ; on
oesophageal digestion, 53.

Ptychoptera, 43, 55, 59, 75, 82, 83,
146.

Pupal organs, 139; skin, 143; stage
of insects, 151.

Pupation, 138.

Recapitulation, 10.

Rectal papillae of fly, 107.

Reproductive organs, of fly, 109 ; de-
velopment of, in larva, 135.

Respiration, organs of, 80.

Ritter on embryonic development of
Chironomus, 157.

Rolletfe on haemoglobin in Cliiro-
uonius-larva, 77.

Salivary glands of larva, 67.
Secretion of stomach of larva, 57, 60

(note).
Sense-organs, 48.
Sensory setae, 35, 49.
Sexual germs, 159.
Simulium, 35, 43, 59, 61, 82, 85,

146 ; peritrophic membrane of, 59 ;

oesophageal valve of, 61.
Sounds emitted by fly, 97, 1S3.
StoDiach of larva, 55.
Stomato-gastric nerves, 48.
Stratiomys, 22.

Swammerdam on transformation, 119.
Swarms of Chironomus-flies, 9, 183.

Tail of pupa, 141.

Tanypus, 7, 33, 49, 76, 84, 85, 95,

135-

Taylor, on Chironomus rainntu.'i, 11 ;
on C. nivtipennis, 13; on Ortho-
cladius, 14 ; on Clinocera, 34 ; on
Hemerodromia, 35 (note) ; on
swarms and buzzing, 183.

Tentorium, 90.

Thoracic appendage.s, development of,
121.

Thorax of fly, 100.

Tipula, 43.

196

Index

Tracheal gill of pupa, 141 ; castinff of,
144.

Tracheal gills, S3.

Transformation, of Chironomus dor-
salis, 7, 119; off. mmutus, 12; of
C. nireipennis, 13; of Orthocladius,
17 ; of insects, 151 ; embryonic and
adult, 152.

Transverse nerve.=, 45.

Two groups of Chironomus-larvae and
pupae, II, 146, 150.

Ventral plate of embryo, i6x.
Viallanes, Recherclies of, 71.
Vignon on histology of alimentary

canal, 60 (note).
Villot on hair-worms (Gordius), 4.

Walker on methods of fixing, staining,
and cutting, 177.

Waterhouse on chitinous tunnels in
heads of insects, 91.

Weismann, on insertion of larval
muscles, 42 ; on Coi-ethra, 49, 129 ;
imaginal discs of, 120 ; on develop-
ment of thoracic appendages, 124;
on continuity of germ-plasm, 156 ;
on embryonic development of Chiro-
nomus, 156.

Wielowiejski, on oenocytes, 40; on
pericardial cells, 74.

Wilkinson on mounting entire larvae,
181.

Wings of fly, 104; of pupa, 140.

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